Past Perfect and Past Perfect Continuous for ESL

The two most advanced tenses in the past are the past perfect and past perfect continuous. There are slight differences between these two tenses, but both are used to speak about actions that occur before another point in time in the past. Intermediate level English learners  can study the basic structures below, and then use the activities provided below. Teachers can print out and use materials in-class to help students acquire these two complicated tenses. There are also a number of lessons referenced below that focus on comprehension materials for both of these tenses. Finally, teachers can get ideas and tips from these guides to teaching the past perfect and past perfect continuous. Past Perfect There are two past tenses used to describe things that happen before another point in time in the past. Use the past perfect to talk about an event which had happened at some point in time before something took place. Tom had interviewed five times before he got his first job.She had already eaten by the time they arrived. Past Perfect Continuous The past perfect continuous is used to express how long something had been going on before something important happened in the past. Jane had been studying for four hours when he came home.Jack had been driving four over six hours when he finally pulled over to have lunch. Past Perfect Structure Positive Subject had past participle I, You, He, She, We, They had finished before I arrived. Negative Subject had not (hadnt) past participle I, You, He, She, We, They hadnt eaten before he finished the job. Questions Question word had subject past participle What - had he, she, you, we, they thought before I asked the question? Past Perfect Continuous Structure Positive Subject had been verb ing I, You, He, She, We, They had been working for two hours when she telephoned. Negative Subject had not (hadnt) been verb ing I, You, He, She, We, They hadnt been paying attention for long when he asked the question. Questions Question word (often How long) had been subject verb ing How long - had he, she, you, we, they been working before he arrived? Study the Past Perfect and Past Perfect Continuous in Depth Here are detailed guides to the past perfect and the past perfect continuous tenses. Each guide provides situations, common time expressions used with the tense, as well as examples. This guide is for choosing between using simple perfect forms or continuous perfect forms (present perfect, past perfect, future perfect vs present perfect continuous, past perfect continuous, future perfect continuous) is perfect for advanced level students looking to understand the fine points of these tenses. The past unreal (3rd) conditional also uses the past perfect form. Test Your Knowledge of Past Perfect and Past Perfect Continuous Once youve studied the rules - or if you already know the rules - test your knowledge with a past forms review or conditional forms quiz. Teach a Lesson about the Past Simple and Past Continuous Here are lessons on the site which have elements of the lesson which focus on the past perfect simple or past perfect continuous and their use with other tenses. Tense Identification Review - Integration Lesson for Upper-Level Students​A Difficult Situation - Using Modal Verbs of Probability in the PastMultinationals - Help or Hindrance? - use of past perfect/continuous to in debate lessons to provide contextGuilty! - communication lesson using a variety of past tensesSentence Auctions - students try to decide whether a sentence is a genuine masterpiece worth buying, includes examples of past perfect. Activities with the Past Perfect Simple and Past Perfect Continuous Some activities that will help you practice: Waiting for a Friend - Advanced past and future forms (future continuous, 3rd conditional, etc.)English Tenses Timeline Chart - study how the past perfect and past perfect continuous relate to other tenses on a timeline.

The, China, And Post Mao China Essay - 1453 Words

Three Times: Republican, China, Socialist, China, and Post-Mao China Introduction The twentieth century was not only transformational but also traumatic for China just like other societies. Notably, the prevalence of warfare in China was high throughout the century. In addition to war, dramatic peacetime economic and social changes characterized the country’s twentieth century. These shifts often resulted from official policies related to redistribution of property, collectivism experiments, and land reforms. China’s early cinema industry represented these changes through films such as the Goddess, the Red Detachment Woman, and Farewell my Concubine. Each of these films represented societal shifts in the country during three unique historical periods. For instance, the Goddess is a representation of the economic, social, and political changes in the country during the Republic China period. Similarly, the Red Detachment of Women epitomizes China during the socialist era. Finally, the film Farewell my Concubine depicts the Chinese society during the Post-Mao age. The paper will provide a comprehensive analysis besides comparing the social, cultural, and historical aspects of the Chinese society based on these films. Republic China (1912-1949): The Goddess The film Goddess revolves around the life of a struggling lower class woman. The tough economic times in the society force Ruan Ling-Yu to degrade her moral standards and submit to prostitution to survive andShow MoreRelatedMao Zedong And The Mao Era Of China950 Words   |  4 PagesIn China after Chairman Mao, China had a period of post Maoism and was moving away from Chairman Mao to a more modernized China. Even though Mao Zedong had a hand in creating China and unifying, China in it is early years up to the Chinese Cultural revolution. His downturn or his bad Mao days were after the Cultural Revolution. 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Life Without Televisions Free Essays

Life without Television When my family’s only television set went to the repair shop the other day, my parents, my sister, and I thought we would have a terrible week. How could we get through the long evenings in such a quiet house? What would it be like without all the shows to keep us company? We soon realized, though, that living without television for a while was a stroke of good fortune. It became easy for each of us to enjoy some activities alone, to complete some postponed chores, and to spend rewarding time with each other and friends. We will write a custom essay sample on Life Without Televisions or any similar topic only for you Order Now First of all, with no television to compete for our time, we found plenty of hours for personal interests. We all read more that week than we had read during the six months before. For instance, I was able to finish â€Å"The Scarlet Letter†, a novel assigned in my English class. Also my younger sister read 300 pages of the last book of the â€Å"Twilight† series. We each also enjoyed some hobbies we had ignored for ages. My dad’s old enthusiasm for gardening returned, and he started planting vegetables in his garden. My mom had time to open her bakery book and bake Italian desserts such as Profiterole and tiramisu. My sister and I played volleyball in the back yard, a sport that we loved since we were younger. In addition, my sister and I both stopped procrastinating with our homework. We both found out that it was really helpful to work on homework ahead of time; therefore I worked on chapter three and four of my Algebra homework for next week. I also finished my study guide for my English test. My sister as well worked on her French and Government assignments. Second we did chores that had been hanging over our heads for too long. There were many jobs around the house that had needed attention for some time. Cleaning our rooms was the first chore we did; my sister and I cleaned our entire room and vacuumed the carpet. Then my mom cleaned the counter tops and all the shelves of the kitchen. Finally my dad managed to clean his garage and put all of his tools back on the shelves. We also had a chance to do some long- postponed shopping. My father went to SEARS to buy a sofa that was needed in his room. My mom went to LOWES to buy accessories for her bathroom. My sister and I went to the mall to buy her prom dress and I was able to buy two pairs of jeans and two shirts that I wanted. And each of us also caught up with e-mails and did paperwork that was long overdue. My mom had some office work done, such as sales reports for the committee of her company. My dad finally wrote an e-mail to my grandma that is living in Spain with my aunt Susan. My sister also replied to e-mails from her friends that live in Italy. And I was able to complete my FASFA application for the fall semester. Finally, and probably most important, we spent time with each other. Instead of just being in the same room together while we stared at a screen, we actually talked for many pleasant hours. My parents and I never had long conversations before, and during that week, we got to know each other more than we did for the past five years. My sister and I talked more about each other and we found out that we have a lot of interests in common. Moreover, for the first time in years, my family played some games together. My sister enjoys playing Monopoly; therefore, we played almost every night. We also played chest, one of my dad’s favorite games. My mom’s favorite game is dominos; although my sister ended up winning every game. And because we didn’t have to worry about missing this or that show, we had some family friends over on a couple of evenings and spent enjoyable time with them. We would play volleyball in the back yard. After several games we would have dinner in the back patio enjoying the lovely weather while listening to classical music. And finally after dinner we would make a bonfire and sit around it and remember memories with our friends. Once our television returned, we were not prepared to put it in the attic. But we had a sense of how it can take over our lives if we are not careful. We are now more selective. We turn on the set for our favorite shows, certain sports events, and the news, but we don’t leave it running all evening. As a result, we find we can enjoy television and still have time left over for other activities and interests. How to cite Life Without Televisions, Essay examples

Reflection Therapeutic Relationship

Question: Describe about the Report for Reflection of Therapeutic Relationship. Answer: Reflection 1:- This particular incident is that situation that reflected how I managed to have a healing and a therapeutic relationship with Patient A, a patient who was unable to speak after a stroke she has suffered five years ago. I was in the psychiatric ward having a 3 weeks clinical placement for mental care in my 4th semester. In the ward patients were encouraged to walk out of the ward towards a small cafeteria during meal time. During lunch time I noticed that Patient A, who is a77 years old diagnosed with Schizophrenia is sitting on her bed and not heading towards the cafeteria. She was having tremors and was unable to control her muscles in her legs. These tremors are usually caused as a side effect of the anti psychotic drug she was being given. Due to her mental state she was unable to understand this and was getting agitated. At first I introduced myself and approached her to build a rapport with her. I asked her whether she wanted to take her lunch or not. Due to these tremors she wa s unable to walk unassisted and was unable to feed herself. I checked the chart for her diet and got her lunch from the cafeteria. Through her chart I got to know that she was on a soft diet as she has difficulty in swallowing. After that I took her permission to feed her but she only looked towards me in a blur. In empathy I imagined myself in her place and assumed that due to her age she may have an issue with hearing. I touched her shoulder and raised my tone and at the same time made gestures to feed her. She understood my actions and nodded her head. Luckily the non verbal communication in the form of gestures and facial expressions helped me to convey my message to her. I maintained eye contact with her while feeding her as to show that I am interested in feeding her. She cooperated well and enjoyed her meal. In my evaluation I made the right decision in approaching Mrs A and feeding her. I had used my interpersonal skills to establish a rapport of mutual understanding and sen se of trust. When sense of trust exists between a nurse and a patient it builds a relationship that raises the patient self esteem. This helps the patient to communicate well with the carer and in this case it was in the forms of facial expressions and actions. It is important for a nurse to be trustworthy, caring, and to show empathy. As our communication was non verbal it included postures, gestures, and facial expressions. I attended Mrs A to show my empathy towards her as she was unable to walk and feed herself. As it was my duty to care for her. Therefore a nurses involvement should not be limited to task centered communication but it should be good patient centered communication. Reflection 2:- I had a 3 week surgical posting and I was assigned to care for patients who had a number of diseases. One of them was a 70 year old male who had diabetes mellitus, end stage renal disease, gall bladder gangrene, gout, hyperlipidemia and hypertension. I had observed that he seemed to be lonely and did not mingle with other patients. No family members visited him. During interacting with him I came to know that he thinks that he is a burden on his family due to his numerous medical conditions. He had expressed his desire to die instead of living with so many diseases. He also told me that no one showed concern, care and love for him. During our conversation he mentioned numerous times that he wanted to die. I had listened to him patiently but at the same time was also noting clues of suicidal tendency. I informed the nurse in charge that Mr B has shared his depressive desire and mood with me. I started spending more time with him and explained to him that dying will not be solution to his problems. The staff started paying more attention on him and counseled him. I used the distraction strategy with him and took him around to interact with others. I had felt highly uncomfortable when he had disclosed his desire to die therefore I sympathized with him. His feelings of committing suicide were quite evident through his words therefore I had decided not to ignore them. He had a fear of physical dependence which can only be addressed by communicating with him through compassion. I was very cautious, careful and patient with him. In situations like these the carer or nurse has to be cautious, patient and careful with the patient. We cannot vent our anger, or shout at the patient after hearing to their wish to die over and over again. I was able to win Mr Bs trust only then he has confided in me, his negative feelings. I started with building a good rapport with the patient which helped me in offering him the right resources to his way to getting better. In his case kee ping him in contact with other people was important as it would ensure a safe environment for him to get better. Through this experience I was able to learn basic counseling skills by actively listening to the patient and empathizing with him. With a few words of empathy and encouragement an elderly patient was turned from a depressive person to a calm and pleasing person. Through communicating with me and ward staff he was usually in a calm and cheerful mood. On the day when Mr B was getting discharged he thanked me and the staff for our care and encouragement. Reflection 3:- it is an example when I was involved in care of a 14 year old girl which I feel is an example of an outstanding good practice. In clinical site interaction I got the chance to observe the public health nurse who was working with a 14 year old who was physically abused. Firstly I was highly impressed with the way that the nurse talked to the girl. When we examined and talked to the girl she told us that had fallen and had a black eye. She was unable to see from that eye. I noticed that she has various scratches and bruises on her face and arms. She was hesitant and withdrawn to talk about the incident. I noticed now the nurse was reassuring in her tone when she interacted with the girl. She was very gentle when she examined the girl and asked very politely whether she had any issues at home. To that the girl blatantly replied No but the nurse did not push the girl for a different reply. I noticed how the nurse was non-threatening and attentive towards the girl. The nurse then shared h er observations with me when the girl left. She took time in helping me to notice and observe many things that I had missed. I learned how the nurse had used her interviewing and observation skills along with her experience to know the true picture even when she was being told otherwise by the girl. She drew conclusions only when she had carefully analysed the situation and the data that was presented in front of her. She did not reached to conclusions and knew that she had to form a short term plan as she still did not have enough information. Her interpersonal skills and collaborating with me helped me to learn and experience something that I would definitely want to learn. In my course I had learned that therapeutic communication is all about active listening, respecting the client and being a non-threatening listener. Through this incident I was able to experience a therapeutic communication between a nurse and client. I had learned how caring is about seeing beyond what the pat ient is telling you as it is about reading clues that are there in front of you. It is about making the patient trust you by listening to them patiently even when you know that it would take time for the patient to open up to you. In situation like this the patient may take time to trust the nurse to tell the truth but the nurse has to be patient to let them take their time in order to form a trusting relationship. The simplest technique to communicate empathy is through reflection and as a nurse you can do it in many ways. We need to understand that patient have their own concerns and should interpret the clues that the patient presents in front of us. As nurses we have to aware that communication of pain will not always be verbal but it can be in the form of expressions and gestures.

Wendy Martin Essays - Childhood Psychiatric Disorders, Childhood

Wendy Martin Prof. Eileen Roth Psychology 11 Child Psychology Parenting Children With Attention Deficit Disorder Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a disorder that is usually first evident in childhood and can affect the individual into adulthood. At one time it was thought to be only a behavior problem, later t was redefined in the 50s as "minimal brain dysfunction," before it finally metamorphosed into today's ADD and ADHD. ADD is a neurobehavioral disorder and is characterized in the DSM IV as inattention, hyperactivity, and impassivity that is prese before the age of seven and which causes impairment with social, academic or occupational functioning. The problems that children with ADD/HD go through affect many aspects of a child's life. The usual developmental tasks can become extremely diffi lt for these children, and especially frustrating for the parents. The main areas that are affected in the lives of attention different children are those of self-esteem, social relationships, their academic skills, and most importantly their family r ationships namely those between the parent and ADD/HD child. If a child is able to be diagnosed early in life, the parent is at an advantage over one who has no idea that their child has this disorder. Parent training can be one of the most import t and effective interventions for a child with ADD. In the aforementioned difficult areas where ADD can cause the most problems to be prepared as a parent for the situations that their children and they themselves as parents face can be lessened and ca even be turned into productive learning tools. CompuServe, on the World Wide Web has a forum that is specifically dedicated to Attention Deficit Disorder and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. It is one of the best resources for individuals with ADD/HD, children, parents and therapists. One rticle, was written by Pamela Darr Wright, a licensed social worker specializing in child development in children with learning and attention disorders. In her article she explained each stage of child development and how kids with ADD experience these tages with much greater difficulty and cause a lot of strain on the parent/caregiver-child relationship. She began with the infant stage of development where some of the most critical developmental tasks occur. These are the tasks of calming themselve how to use the senses to learn about the world, and develop trust with the parent/caregiver. Infants that may later be diagnosed with ADD/HD are often labeled as "colicky," "hyper-excitable," "irritable," or "unsoothable." They are very active, easi distracted, and over-reactive to stimuli. The parents of these infants often respond to a 'difficult' baby with confusion and alarm. The interaction between nurturing parent(s) and child is critical. When parents cannot 'cope' with their baby, they ually assume it is their own fault as failing parents which begins a relationship laden with guilt that can continue on through the entire relationship with their child. The second psychosocial developmental stage which occurs in the Toddler years, is that of separation. The period wherein the child develops the ability to hold a mental image of the parent in his mind. As the child accomplishes the task of separating, strong sense of autonomy and confidence develops. It is during this stage also where the toddler develops ideas and concepts and is learning to accept limits and to tolerate frustration and to recover from disappointments. Wright explains that these evelopmental tasks can present significant problems for toddlers with ADD/HD. Typically, these youngsters have difficulty tolerating frustration and may be emotionally over-reactive. Parents describe them as "all-or-nothing" children who have difficul calming themselves. They tend to fall apart easily, dissolving into tears of frustration when needs and wants are not met immediately. One of they most important things that a parent can do for their ADD/HD child is to be consistent. When children h e predictable consequences to their behavior it helps them to learn more quickly. For example, a child with ADD who wants a toy while shopping with his mother may immediately begin to throw a tantrum when she refuses to comply to her toddler's wishes. n order to discourage further behavior there are many behavioral methods which one can use to form a discipline strategy. Most parenting classes talk about how to discipline your child.

The Technological Advances of Early Man †History Essay

The Technological Advances of Early Man – History Essay Free Online Research Papers The Technological Advances of Early Man History Essay Webster defines technology as the practical application of knowledge in a particular area. The advancement of man from the beginning of civilization to present-day passes through many stages of history. Some of those stages include man before civilization, as in the old, middle, and new stone ages, the Mesopotamian civilization, the Egyptian civilization, the Greek civilization, and the Roman civilization. Each new civilization brings with them new ideas, new culture, and new technology. Technology is the key to early civilization, as well as all other civilization. Humans have technology because of man’s ability to reason. If we do not use this ability, then we are only as good as the animals around us. Another important aspect of technology in civilization is that, in most cases, the civilization with the greatest technology usually survives longer. For example, if one soldier arms himself with a copper shield and a wooden shield and the other soldier arms himself with a iron sword and a bronze shield, the second soldier is most likely to survive because he has the greater technology that gives him better materials to work with. Before one can discuss the different civilizations and their technology, he must first talk about civilization in itself. Civilization is defined by three elements: cities, metal-working or technology, and writing. Cities also need three elements which are people, defensive walls, and government. Of course a city needs a population, but it also needs defensive walls to have protection from outside invaders. A city also needs a government, of a centralized ruling unit. Early civilizations almost always had a king, usually a military leader. The government gives the city unity and organization. In addition to cities, a civilization also needs metal-working, or technology. The first metals were copper and tin. The earliest civilizations uses copper because it is easy to obtain and easy to shape. Technology then advances into the bronze age where man mixes copper and tin. This process makes bronze, which is a stronger and more durable metal than copper. A down side to using copper is that it is brittle and looses its blade after so many uses. Bronze, however, is much stronger. After bronze comes iron. The discovery of iron solves more than one problem. First, it is a better and stronger metal than bronze. Second, tin is hard to find in the ancient world. This hinders the process of making bronze. Iron ore though is found in abundance in the ancient world, which makes production a little easier. The only exception to production being easier is that iron is difficult to melt because of its high melting point. Nevertheless, the technology of man is steadily increa sing. Writing is also a necessity to civilization. Writing first appears because of trade and business. Business transactions of the ancient world provided the first need for a written language. Another need for writing is to record the past. In many cases, stories are passed down from generation to generation. These stories need to be recorded for the observation of history and culture for the generations to come. The first forms of writing is pictographs. This form uses pictures, which means that man just simply drew a picture of what he wanted to say. For example, if the dealer wanted to trade ten chickens for a cow, he would simply draw ten chickens and then a cow. As technology progressed, writing and language followed. Pictures became symbols, and symbols became letters. Civilization depends on the three elements of cities, metal-working, and writing. Without these elements, civilization does not exist. This brings us to our first observation of man: the Paleolithic Stone Age. The stone ages is the time period before civilization. Man uses tools of stone. Paleolithic Stone Age means â€Å"old stone age†. during this time, man was know as hunter-gatherers. As hunger-gatherers, man was nomadic, which means they followed their food source. Man had no farm knowledge and paid no attention to climate or season change and how it affects the environment. Man also improvised shelters during this time. The shelters were mostly found in caves. Man also mastered the use of fire. With this use of fire, man also learned how to use the fire to harden wood for weapons and tools. In addition to wooden tools, man also used stone to make many objects. Standardization was developed as best it could be. Standardization is the making of tools accord ing to a certain pattern. Man repeated the patterns that worked the best when making tools. In addition to technological advances, man also achieved physical skill. Man mastered the art of spear-throwing or shooting a bow and arrow. Man mostly used this for hunting, but other times in warfare. All of this technology helped man survive through the four Ice Ages of the Paleolithic Period. After the Paleolithic Period comes the Mesolithic Stone Age, or â€Å"middle stone age†. This time period is considered to be a transitional period. The transition is from the final ice age to the settlement of man for cultivation. During this time, man began certain farming techniques which produced wheat and barley. Even though man began to use farming as a source of food, the majority of man remained hunger-gatherers. The culture and technology, other than the new farming techniques, ultimately remain the same with from the Paleolithic to the Mesolithic time periods. The middle stone age’s time period changes with each area of existence. This is because the polar ice cap is shrinking slowly. It is out of certain areas while remaining in others. The Neolithic, or new, Stone Age emerges shortly after the Mesolithic time period. Man during this time is slowly getting away from savagery by increasing his reliance upon stock-keeping and farming. This new reliance in creased the population because it solved the problem of food shortage by taking man away from being hunter-gatherers. Temporary settlements were established for stock-keeping and cattle herding. The settlements remained temporary because man was still developing his farming skills so some nomadic measures were needed. However, after man perfected his farming techniques, he is able to establish permanent settlements. All of the permanent settlements occurred because of a reason. Some of these reasons are water, food, clothing, shelter, and defense from violence. These needs are the reason for the first settlements emerging in the two places known as the Tigris and Euphrates River Valley and the Nile River Valley. These two river valleys are perfect for suppo rting man because it has a huge water source that also produces food and defense. Another advantage of being near a river is trade. The fastest way to ship product in mass form is by water. This raised man’s awareness of his surroundings and helped the technology by observing other tribes and settlements around their own. With the population growing, more and more ideas appear. By using this spreading of ideas, the Neolithic man is able to begin to use copper tools by the end of the Neolithic age. If writing is to be considered the difference between barbarianism and civilized man, then the first civilization is forms in Mesopotamia, also known as the Tigris and Euphrates River Valley. The Mesopotamian civilization is not one big empire. Instead, it is an accumulation of several city-states that are ruled by warrior kings. Each city-state has massive walls around the city to protect itself from outside invasion. The walls are made from a mud-brick formula. The farming was rather easy in Mesopotamia because of the fertile land. Man starts to learn to observe the environment around him. In example, farmers begin to observe the natural flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and develop their own irrigation system. The people of Mesopotamia also had buildings. Every city had a temple built in the middle. The temple was made from mud-brick also, and it was built to honor their various polytheistic gods. The use of copper is also being perfected during this time p eriod. Some bronze is used later on, but copper is still utilized more because it is cheaper and easier to work with. All communication is either by boat or by foot. The civilizations use the rivers as much as possible when it comes to travel because of the speed and safety. Foreign invaders often come into the land of Mesopotamia and take over. Some, like the Akkadians, form a unified empire. Others, like the Babylonians, go back to independent city-states. Each time the land is conquered, a little bit of society and culture from each civilization is left and intermingled with the new power. The intelligence of man is growing and technology is increasing with it. Very soon after civilization appeared in Mesopotamia, civilization also appeared in the Nile River Valley, also known as Egypt. The Egyptian society always appeared as a unified empire. Pharaoh is given absolute power. Egyptian cities were surrounded by defensive walls. Much like Mesopotamia, Egypt had very fertile land because of the Nile River. The Nile River Valley is considered to be the most fertile land in the known world, but the fertility stops at the borders of the river. Wealth in ancient Egypt is calculated by the amount of land that a person has. The more land a person owns, the wealthier he is. The growth of slavery also began in Egypt. In fact, the famous Egyptian pyramids made of granite, built for tombs for pharaoh, were built by slaves. Rather than kill his enemies, pharaoh would often take his enemies into captivity to use their labor. More inventions used by man in this civilization were the wheeled-cart, later turned into the chariot, and sails. Large ships were created mostly for the imports and exports since Egypt was the leading export for grain in the world. Egyptian civilization became very rich off of their exports and the fruits of their labor are found in one of the most famous archaeological finds in history: the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamen. The bronze age of Egypt is believed to be at its peak at this time because of he many bronze fine arts and crafts found in the tomb. Workings of gold, silver, and ivory are also found in the tomb which tells us that the civilized man is progressing exceptionally. Around the same time in history, both the Mesopotamian and the Egyptian civilization begin to die out, leaving scattered, independent states of civilizations. Shortly after this downfall of civilization, iron is discovered. Iron is tougher to melt, but, once it is formed, it is much stronger than any other metal at this time in history. This new invention spreads by the scattered settlers of the fallen civilizations. Once the proper techniques of making iron tools are mastered, the civilization of man picks up again with brand new technology. After the invention of iron, man also begins to make wider roads of stone. With these larger roads, armies can cross large amounts of land with ease. Traders can also use these roads to carry various goods from other civilization. Civilization is spread throughout the known world either by choice or by force. With civilization comes technology, which is a never-ending evolution. Research Papers on The Technological Advances of Early Man - History EssayBringing Democracy to AfricaGenetic EngineeringDefinition of Export QuotasAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeOpen Architechture a white paper19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This NiceBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of Self

Boys n the hood Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Boys n the hood - Essay Example Ricky, on the other hand, doesn’t have a strong male figure in life that puts him in the right path like Jason to Tre. Although he tries to do well, he is often influenced by his half-brother Doughboy, who gets in and out of prison for his participations in violent gangs. He manages to stay still and focused due to Tre and Jason’s company and aspires to steel get a scholarship in college through football. A lot of people may consider this movie as a ghetto film. But Singleton is able to show the realism in the movie that such story happens in real life. The three young men who struggle in their journey in the streets of South Central are just merely trying to protect themselves from the dangers of the hood. Although their ways may be different from each other, they all have the same goal – survival. The major turning point in the movies is the death of Ricky. He dies in the movie by a gunshot in one of the clashes of the two contradicting gangs, in which one of t he gangs, Doughboy is a participant. As he takes his brother home, his mother realized that Ricky qualifies for the scholarship but in tears due to her son’s death. The incident has pushed Doughboy to killing the man behind his brother’s death, Ferris.

APA RESEARCH PAPER Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

APA - Research Paper Example It is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and significantly increases the risk of morbidity and mortality. The last two decades have witnessed an increase in health care costs due to obesity and related issues among children and adolescents. Childhood obesity is a global phenomenon affecting all socio-economic groups, irrespective of age, sex or ethnicity. Aetiopathogenesis of childhood obesity is multi-factorial and includes genetic, neuroendocrine, metabolic, psychological, environmental and socio-cultural factors. Many co-morbid conditions like metabolic, cardiovascular, psychological, orthopaedic, neurological, hepatic, pulmonary and renal disorders are seen in association with childhood obesity. The treatment of overweight and obesity in children and adolescents requires a multidisciplinary, multi-phase approach, which includes dietary management, physical activity enhancement, restriction of sedentary behaviour, pharmacotherapy and bariatric surgery. A holist ic approach to tackle the childhood obesity epidemic needs a collection of activities including influencing policy makers and legislation, mobilizing communities, restructuring organizational practices, establishing coalitions and networks, empowering providers, imparting community education as well as enriching and reinforcing individual awareness and skills. The implications of this global phenomenon on future generations will be serious unless appropriate action is taken. Keywords: Adolescents, children, dietary management, obesity, overweight Go to: Introduction Worldwide, disease profiles are transforming at a rapid pace catching the attention of medical professionals and policy makers alike. This is particularly true in low and middle-income countries that form the major chunk of global population. The emerging epidemics of obesity, cardiovascular disease (CVD) and diabetes form the crux of this phenomenal change. Among these entities, obesity has become a colossal epidemic ca using serious public health concern and contributes to 2.6 million deaths worldwide every year1. Obesity is an independent risk factor for CVD. Obesity is associated with an increased risk of morbidity and mortality as well as reduced life expectancy. The last two decades of the previous century have witnessed dramatic increase in health care costs due to obesity and related issues among children and adolescents2. For children and adolescents, overweight and obesity are defined using age and sex specific normograms for body mass index (BMI). Children with BMI equal to or exceeding the age-gender-specific 95th percentile are defined obese. Those with BMI equal to or exceeding the 85th but are below 95th percentiles are defined overweight and are at risk for obesity related co-morbidities3. Go to: Epidemiology Childhood obesity affects both developed and developing countries of all socio-economic groups, irrespective of age, sex or ethnicity. It has been estimated that worldwide over 22 million children under the age of

Organisation Theory Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Organisation Theory - Assignment Example Nothing could be farther from the truth, because organizations are diverse in the goals they set for themselves, the way they are structured, the activities they undertake and their strategies to pursue their goals (Daft & Marcic, 2013). Organizations include the Catholic Church as well as the Yakuza, the Chicago Bears and the International Paralympic Committee, the Salvation Army and Apple, Inc., Mensa International and the Miss Universe Organization. The wide spectrum of organizations appears to defy any attempt to define what unifies them, let alone shape a coherent and cohesive Organization Theory. The issue to be addressed in this discussion deals on the advantages and disadvantages of a multi-perspective approach to understanding organizations. Adopting a widely diversified approach that seeks to include all organizations may defeat the purpose of creating a definitive framework due to overbreadth, to the point that nearly all organizations may be excluded from some aspect of t he theory. ... d and described according to its tangible aspects (organizational structure, asset size, principal operations, number of employees, place of operations), and intangible aspects (management style, type of leadership, organizational culture, strategic approach). Increasingly, organizations are being viewed in terms of theoretical pluralisms because of the growing awareness of their increasing complexity. Astley & Van de Ven (1983) propose a metatheoretical taxonomy of the major schools of thought in organization and management theories is presented in the table in the Appendix. There are two dimensions according to which the divergent views were classified: the level of organizational analysis (from the micro to the macro), and the orientation of the analysis (from deterministic to voluntaristic). The matrix created is comprised of four quadrants: System-Structural View (Q1), Strategic Choice View (Q2), Natural Selection View (Q3), and Collective-Action View (Q4). The System-Structural View (also known as Structural-Functionalist Perspective) addresses the micro-level (i.e., individual organizations) with a deterministic orientation. Determinism means that organizational behaviour is perceived to be shaped by a system of impersonal mechanisms that impose external constraints on the members of the organization. The structure of the organization creates roles and positions that function as hierarchical instruments in achieving organizational goals and creating stability in the system (Stolley, 2005). Included in this category are the systems theory of organization, the theory of structural functionalism, and contingency theory. The behaviour elicited is constrained and adaptive, and management role is reactive. The Strategic Choice View differs from the System-Structural

Psychological research into language, and sex and gender

Psychological research into language, and sex and gender In this report I will be evaluating the contribution of social perspectives to our understanding from the two topics found in: OU, DSE212 Challenging Psychological Issues, Book 2. The topics I have chosen for consideration of psychological research are language, and sex and gender. The approaches taken will be analysed the topic in general terms and not to focus on one particular aspect at detailed levels. It points to the lack of a conclusive answer which is caused by Psychology as a discipline being relatively young and still in early stages with a lack of adequately strong theories that might assist to connect otherwise contrasting perspectives co existing. The report concludes that different perspectives within psychology can coexist at times, though conflict is frequent throughout. Sex and Gender The Psychology of sex and gender is one the most topical, important and engaging subjects that psychology, it illustrates many of the difficult issues that psychological explanations must address, including the political implications of different perspectives and the challenging of integrating explanations. It has been a controversial topic since the inception of psychology as a discipline and it powerful illustrates some of the diverse approaches with the field. A deliberation of how psychology approaches the analysis of sex and gender discloses four psychological perspectives, these are: Biological sex differences: Explaining the differences between male and female and biological correlates of behaviour. Investigations ere conducted through scientific processes Evolutionary psychology: Explaining the differences in the behaviour between the sexes in terms of behavioural selection for reproductive fitness. Test are conducted empirically Social constructionist theory: Gender differences between the sexes through the study of discourse in various historical, cultural and social contexts and so is hermeneutic. Psychoanalytic psychology: Development and meaning of sexual differences. Studies are largely done through clinical observation. Direct impressions of the four perspectives are objects of knowledge of each of the perspectives are all valid and useful in general psychology of sex and gender,. They pose somewhat different questions, have different objects of knowledge and use different notions of evidences. These perspectives may be complementary, conflicting however the scope for co-existence is not transparent. Given that the perspectives do not share common objects of knowledge, however is there can be an underlying hope for complementary theories in which together they all contribute to a broad understanding. Sex refer to the biological basis of differences between the sexes, where as gender refers to social constructed categories pertaining to these differences. Assigning a sex to humans can sometimes be a complex process, biological characteristics such as genetics and hormonal used to designate male or female, can be unreliable in small proportions of case, due to genetic abnormalities, such as, Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS) and Klinefelterss Syndrome ((XXY) (OU, p137) Certainly the biological and evolutionary perspectives appear complementary at the theoretical level in that both regard biological sex as the determinant of gender and view differences between sexes as biological features that have been selected for during evolution. Evolutionary psychologists argue that sexual selections and the different optimal reproductive styles of our male female ancestors have results in some differences in the behavioural predispositions of the two sexes. These are seen to particularly apparent in the area of sexual behaviours and attitudes. Buss (1992), found while both sexes reported experiencing jealousy at the though of their partner being involved with another person, there were differences in the focus of their concerned. OU,p145) In humans, unlike in other animals, clear differences in brain structures that correlate with differences in adult behaviour patterns have proven difficult to demonstrate. Nonetheless, imaging studies show some sex differences in brain functioning of Western adults. This is probably due, at least in part, to the brains plasticity.(Giedd et al, 1999) )p140). While some sex differences are clearly established at birth for most individuals, bodies and brained may become gendered over lifetime of use. A explanations would appear to be consistent with research findings from cross-cultural differences in male and females sexual behaviours, which Allen and Gorski, 1990 study has backed (OU, p139) However, biological psychology attempts to explain differences in male-female psychology in terms of selected physiological characteristics, for example dimorphism in brain structures (cf. Hofman and Swaab, 1991, cited in Holloway et al, 2007, p.139). On the other hand the evolutionary psychologist would principally argue in favour of selected behavioural characteristics such as differences between male and female sexual attitudes (cf. Clark and Hatfield, 1989, cited in Holloway et al, 2007, p.146). There is thus an apparent conflict at the level of analysis. It is therefore ironic that evolutionary psychology must perforce co-exist with biological psychology since, given the understandable constraints on its ability to conduct the sorts of empirical investigations that might be wished for (cf. Herrnstein-Smith, 2000, cited in Holloway et al, 2007, OU p.141), it is dependent on a certain amount of corroboration from the biological perspective, amongst others (cited in Holloway et al, 2007, pp.184). (22) Social constructionist point of view, they regard sex and gender as characteristics that are revealed only through discourse and action. These are consequence of the individuals behaviour and experience in a given cultural, social and historical context. The depth of the conflict is exemplified by a comparison of evolutionary studies that emphasise cross-cultural stability in particular sexual preferences (cf. Singh 1995, p.148; Buss and Schmitt, 1993, p.148, cited in Holloway et al, 2007) and social constructionist ideas such as Sandra Bem, who developed the idea of the cultural lens of musicality and femininity. This lens is a way of perceiving the world that makes behaviour and experiences gendered, this is called the Gender Schema Theory (1994, Holloway et al, 2007, OU p.153). According to the social constructionist perspectives, biological sex is not central to explaining what it is to be a man or a women, rather it is a signpost to which a whole set of us socially constructed gender differences are attached. In this account, social constructionist created discourse about masculinity and femininity are used by individual to create their own gendered subject positions. Whereas the biological and evolutionary perspectives agree that biological sex lies at the heart of explaining gender, the social constructionist perspective explicitly rejects that view; sometimes for political reasons. In relation to Sex and Gender, political differences are often exposed when conflicting accounts of differences occur. Gender and sexuality came to be seen, through Freuds work, as having far-reaching implications for the development of self. It largely complements the social constructionist, in terms of its interpretive or hermeneutic methodology, its explanations largely focus on the unconscious given that its objects of study entail the meaning of the biological differences between men and women and how these become internalised in the childs mind (OU, Holloway et al, 2007, pp.183). Thus both the social constructionist and psychoanalytic perspectives conflict with the biological and evolutionary approaches at the methodological level. Uniquely however the psychoanalysis perspective recognises both biological and cultural contributions to its theorising. It is not without its share of conflict however. Within the perspective, a important critical developments in the psychoanalytic theory sex and gender includes Freuds notion for the symbolic significance of the penis( and penis envy) quickly came under scrutiny from feminist psychologists to scientific practices. through Freud failure to consider the significant of womens genitals. (OU, Horney, 1926, , 2007, p.164). Language and Meaning There are three main perspectives used to examine the complex area of language, these are: Theory Methods Themes. These perspectives focus on different aspects of language including evolutionary developments of languages, the processing of languages and the construction of meaning through interaction. The study of language and meaning, one finds an equally intriguing mix of potential co-existence, complement and conflict when comparing the three principal perspectives. The evolutionary perspective sets out to explore language to understand how are related structurally and historically, how they are used differently by various social and cultural groups and how languages is used to communicate and create meaning. Language is the main medium for communication between humans beings and where we express, explore and pursue those goals that mean most to us .It is possible to view the three perspectives as at least co-existent. Their objects of knowledge are different and one might expect their cumulative product to contribute to some sort of unified theory. However, the potential for conflict between the cognitive and social constructionist perspectives is revealed in how they view meaning as the object of knowledge. For the former it is something that is constructed internally by the individual prior to transmission, and subsequently reconstructed by the audience. For the latter it is negotiated as a result of discourse between individuals meaning emerges as the result of a complex interplay of intentions, interpretations and power-relations. Thus, there is cause for disagreement as to what meaning is and where it comes from (Sperber and Wilson 1986, OU, p100). That this is adequate to justify a claim of conflict seems weak since the types of meaning espoused by the two perspectives are themselves different. A major social constructionist argument against a purist cognitive perspective is that cognitive processes cannot be transparently reported. This argument is one that cognitive researchers have long acknowledged. Commenting on early research into the cognitive modelling of language Boden (1977, pp.113ff, et passim) notes that a persons understanding of language in a given instance is dependent, not simply on their knowledge of the world around them, but crucially on their understanding of their relationship with who they communicate with. Within the evolutionary perspective there is also a debate as to whether language evolved as an adaptation advantage and was the foundation for other cognitive abilities. Pinker (1994) believes that languages may have evolved through natural selection, perhaps in conjunction with other cognitive abilities, OU, p83) or as a consequence of selection for an ability to form our Metarepresentation (Sperber, 2000, p.86). These are contradictory and conflicting views.. The major differences between psychological methods based on natural science principles and those based those on hermeneutic principles means that preservatives based on these methods may have difficulty achieving more than uneasy coexistence. Psychologists do not stand on such substantial bedrock. The questions they pose are often difficult to formulate computationally without reducing the predictive power of any solution, whereas the history of physics can be measured in thousands of years, psychology as a recognisable discipline has existed for just over a century. A inevitable conclusion is that psychology is characterised by perspectives that at one or more of these levels conflict, co-exist or complement, No perspective on its own can tell the whole story. The perspectives and levels of analysis and explanations cannot just be combined without an account of how they interact. Word count: 1793 294 (References + Quotes +Titles + Bullet Points) = 1499

F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby - The Up-Roaring Twenties :: free essay writer

The Great Gatsby: The Up-Roaring Twenties    The 1920s in America were a decade of great social change.   From fashion to politics, forces clashed to produce a very ^Roaring^ decade.   Jazz sounds dominated the music industry.   It was the age of prohibition, the age of prosperity, and the age of downfall.   It was the age of everything, and this can be witnessed through the novel by F. Scott Fitzgerald, The Great Gatsby.   The Roaring Twenties help create Gatsby's character.   Gatsby's participation in the bootlegging business, the extravagant parties he throws, and the wealthy, careless lifestyle the Buchanans represent are all vivid pictures of that time frame.   It turns out, although he was used and abused by all the people whom he thought of as friends, Jay Gatsby ^turned out alright in the end.^   (Fitzgerald 6)   It almost seems as if he is better off dead, according to the narrator, because all his so-called ^friends^ either deserted him or used him for their own personal gain.   There are signs of this all!   throughout the novel, but it is especially evident in the final chapters.   In chapter seven, when Myrtle Wilson is killed, Daisy accepts no responsibility for Myrtle^s death.   She just sits back and lets Gatsby take all the blame for her actions.   Gatsby is very willing to do so, because of the love he has for Daisy.   All Gatsby can think about after the accident is what Daisy went through, it was as if ^Daisy^s reaction was the only thing that mattered.^ (Fitzgerald 151) Gatsby stands outside of Daisy and Tom^s house for hours, waiting for a sign from Daisy that things were alright.   ^I want to wait here till Daisy goes to bed.^ (Fitzgerald 153)   Inside, as she talks with Tom, Daisy shows no remorse, she just continues with her life as if it never happened.   In chapter eight, Gatsby recounts for Nick all the memories he has of Daisy and him together.   ^She was the first ^nice^ girl he had ever known.^   (Fitzgerald 155)   ^...Daisy, gleaming like silver...^ (Fitzgerald 157) This makes it especially hard for Nick to see Gatsby still in love with Daisy.   While around Gatsby, Daisy either pretends to be, or is in love with Gatsby.   This is evidenced when Daisy ^pulled his (Gatsby^s) face down kissing him in the mouth.^   (Fitzgerald 122) Then when she is in her kitchen with Tom after Myrtle^s death, ^there was an unmistakable air of natural intimacy...they were conspiring together.^   (Fitzgerald 152) In the final chapter, Gatsby^s funeral takes place; however, no ^friends^ that had frequented his parties, with the exception of owl-eyes, bother to come to his funeral.

Langston Hughes and Alice Walker Essay

Langston Hughes’ Still Here and Dream Deferred are two poems depicting emotions driven by frustrations in life. These literary works may appear simple, but they both depict the social and political conditions during the time these poems were written. Langston Hughes, a renowned writer during the Harlem Renaissance, is famous for his works on social class and race relations in America. His poem Dream Deferred, as the title suggests, describes various detrimental effects frustration can bring to a person. Literary tools used were imagery, similes, and metaphors in question form to suggest these detrimental effects. In the poem, effects are described as the raisin in the sun, like a sore that festers, like a stinking rotten meat, and like a heavy load. The two poems by Langston both expressed the social and political conditions in his time and its implications to the lives of the African-Americans, then. During Langston’s time, African-American exercised limited rights that may have hindered them from attaining their dreams in life. Langston sees that this problem has caused great pain to the unfulfilled person and to the people surrounding him. The short story Everyday Use by Alice Walker, on the other hand, discusses how culture and heritage should be valued and recognized, specifically that of the African-Americans. Alice Walker, an American writer, like Langston, also writes about race and gender relations. Her short story illustrated the conflict in appreciating the African-American culture by presenting the redefined and the practical ways of doing this. The writer made use of the quilt as the representation of the culture and heritage of the African-American. The quilt, seen as the product of quilting, is said to be the refined way of seeing its worth while knowing the process of quilting represents the practical way and more meaningful way of appreciating the culture and heritage. The story suggests that heritage and culture should not be equated to tangible things and should be understood thoroughly to see its worth. Langston and Walker, through their works, showed how African-Americans feel and what their personal struggles are in two different scenarios. Indeed, their works never failed to provide inspiration to those who can relate. References: Hughes, L. (1951). Dream Deferred. Retrieved May 5, 2009, 2009, from http://www. poemhunter. com/i/ebooks/pdf/langston_hughes_2004_9. pdf Hughes, L. Still Here. Retrieved May 5, 2009, from http://www. poemhunter. com/i/ebooks/pdf/langston_hughes_2004_9. pdf Walker, A. (1973). Everyday Use. Retrieved May 5, 2009, from http://xroads. virginia. edu/~ug97/quilt/walker. html

Free Essays on How The Media Affects Womens Body Images

How the media affects women’s body image OUTLINE I. Having a bad day , this could be why II. Our body image A. What is body image? B. What is self-esteem? III. Looking good can be bad IV. What is the ideal body type? A. Physical appearance B. Model examples C. Survey in magazine V. Eating disorders A. Anorexia nervosa B. Bulimia nervosa C. Are you at risk? VI. Contributing factors A. Body image and advertising B. Body image and cultural influences VII. Is there light at the end of the tunnel? A. Changing the problem B. How to protect yourself  no surprise that issues dealing with body image are on the rise. WE are turning to the media as a role model to gain what is right. One example of that is a survey condusted by Dr. Garten along with Psychology Today. They asked 3,452 women a series of questions dealing with different aspects of their self-esteem and their views on the role the media plays on women. The women ranged in age from 13 to 90 and weighed between 77 pounds and 365 pounds. 89 women weighed 100 or less comparec to a similar number of 82 women that weighed in at more then 250 pounds. The 1997 survey showed increaded in the discomfort of Americans bodies then ever before. 89% of those women tested wanted to lose weigh. Their average weight was 140 pounds and their desired weight was 125 pounds. 67% of the women who were dissatisfied made the comment that modes cause them to question if they are thin enough. Some even stated that models leave them feeling jealous and resentful. Mind and body go hand in hand so it is not a surprise that a lot of these dissatisfied women try to lose weigh fast to obtain the unrealistic look of the media’s models(Garten). Losing weight can always make a person feel better but to much weight loss over a short period of time can cause many serious health problems. Mood changes, loss of hair, liver and heart problems, chill... Free Essays on How The Media Affects Women's Body Images Free Essays on How The Media Affects Women's Body Images How the media affects women’s body image OUTLINE I. Having a bad day , this could be why II. Our body image A. What is body image? B. What is self-esteem? III. Looking good can be bad IV. What is the ideal body type? A. Physical appearance B. Model examples C. Survey in magazine V. Eating disorders A. Anorexia nervosa B. Bulimia nervosa C. Are you at risk? VI. Contributing factors A. Body image and advertising B. Body image and cultural influences VII. Is there light at the end of the tunnel? A. Changing the problem B. How to protect yourself  no surprise that issues dealing with body image are on the rise. WE are turning to the media as a role model to gain what is right. One example of that is a survey condusted by Dr. Garten along with Psychology Today. They asked 3,452 women a series of questions dealing with different aspects of their self-esteem and their views on the role the media plays on women. The women ranged in age from 13 to 90 and weighed between 77 pounds and 365 pounds. 89 women weighed 100 or less comparec to a similar number of 82 women that weighed in at more then 250 pounds. The 1997 survey showed increaded in the discomfort of Americans bodies then ever before. 89% of those women tested wanted to lose weigh. Their average weight was 140 pounds and their desired weight was 125 pounds. 67% of the women who were dissatisfied made the comment that modes cause them to question if they are thin enough. Some even stated that models leave them feeling jealous and resentful. Mind and body go hand in hand so it is not a surprise that a lot of these dissatisfied women try to lose weigh fast to obtain the unrealistic look of the media’s models(Garten). Losing weight can always make a person feel better but to much weight loss over a short period of time can cause many serious health problems. Mood changes, loss of hair, liver and heart problems, chill...

Nevada Teacher Law Court Cases Essays

Nevada Teacher Law Court Cases Essays Nevada Teacher Law Court Cases Paper Nevada Teacher Law Court Cases Paper Hortonville Joint school District No. 1 v. Horton ville Education Association et al. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the dismissal of striking treachers employed in a state (Wisconsin) in which such strikes were prohibited.   Nevada also prohibits teacher strikes. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 Protects employees against sexual harassment in the workplace Unlawful employment practice to discriminate becasue of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin TitleVII of the Civil Rights Act of 1954 AND Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 Title IX, Education Amendments of 1972, Section 901 provides: No person in the US be excluded from participation in or benefits of or discriminated under any ed program or activity receiving Federal Financial assistance on  the basis of sex. Title VII of Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Title IX Education Amendments ENFORCEMENT Title VII Enforced by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission EEOC Title IX enforced by US Department of Ed Office of Civil Rights OCR quid pro quo and non quid pro quo something for something and actions or verbal messages creating an offensive, hostile, or intimidating work environment Meritor Savings Bank, FSB v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57(1986) Meritor standard Sexual conduct constitutes prohibited sexual harassment, whether or not it is directly linked to the grant or denial of an economic quid pro quo, where such conduct has the purpose or effect of unreasonably interfering with an indivuduals work performance or creating an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment. Franklin v. Gwinett County Public Schools 1992.   USS Court held that the recovery of monetary damages was available under Title IX for sexual harassment of a student by a school teacher when school officials intentinally took no action to halt it. Harris v. Forklift Systems Ruled under Title VII by the USS Court roving abusive work environment harassment no longer requires evidence of serious psychological damage, but may be ascertained by considering all of the circumstances involved in the situation. Gebser v. Lago Vista Independent School District USS Court held that under Title IX a student sexually harassed by a teacher could recover damages against a school district only if a school official was deliberately indifferent.   In this case, sexual misconduct was off sdhool property and the school was ruled as not deliberately indifferent. Davis v. Monroe County Board of Education Involves tudent perpetrator and student victim (peer harassment) 1999.   USSC reversed lower courts, ruling that damages for peer harassment may be awareded under Title IX 1) school deliberately indifferent 2)the plaintiff must show that the harrassment is so severe, pervasive, and objectively offensive, and it detracts from the educational experience, such that the victim is effectively denied equal access to education. NRS Chapter 392 1999 Nevada legislature requires every school to develop a plan for the progresssive descipline of students.; Includes remove student from the class for up to 3 days, then conference with pupil, parent, principal, and teacher.; alternative placement or back in class; suspended, or expelled. NRS Chapters 193 ; 200 NV legislature deals with acts of terrorism on school campuses by increasing penalties for felonies committed on school grounds, shcool functions, school buses, etc,.; Additional NV law regarding suspension and expulsion of pupils causing bodily injury or posesstion of dangerous weapons or firearms Copyright Act of 1976 Fair use provides judicially created exceptions to absolute control of material, the privilege in others than the owner fo the copyright to use the copyrighted material in a reasonable manner without his consent, notwithstanding the monopoly granted the owner. Wagenblast v. Odessa SD, Supreme Court of Washington, 1988 School Liability Resleas Forms Releases required to be signed by parents as a condition of engaging in school activities, which hold school districts blameless from liability for negligence, are commonly ruled to be invalid.; NO decision have been rendered with jurisdiction over Vebada.; The court suggested that school districts may require parental consent, but should use straightforward school forms for such use. Peter W. v. San Francisco USD Concerns malpractice cases involving medical profession applied to allegations of school district personnel.; Galileo High School in San Francisco.;;; Peter W. was fired after graduation becasue he could not perform simple arithemetic.; Peters lawyer maintained that eductors failed to act reasonably in administering to his education needs. Claim Denied Absence of workable rule inherent uncertainly in cause and nature of damages extreme burden on public school system resources A 21 Point Defensive Plan for Lawsuit Conscious Coaches warn players about injury possibilities supervise, supervise, supervise proper instruction proper conditioning proper equiment and facilities proper first aid. records, training rules, safety letters, emergency procedures, follow doctors orders, no injured players, equal competition, take care of injured player. Tinker v DeMoines School Board 1969 The right of the public school students to freedom of expression was confirmed in 199 when the USSC held it can hardly be argued that either students or teachers shed their consitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate.;; Schhols arenot totalitrian, possess absolute authority over students.; Students are persons possessed of fundamental inalienable rights.; Right is not unlimited.; Students can not be disruptive.; Bethel v Fraser and Hazelwood School District v Kuhlmeier Reinforced the rights of school administrators to provide positive school environment.; Bethel v. Fraser 1986 Matthew Fraswers speech of sexaul innuendo to 400 students. The court reasoned that according to the FCC v Pacifica Foundation (Carlin) case, expression rising to the level ofobscene would contain one or more of the seven filthy words,.   Frasers speech was indecent, but not FCC case worthy. ; USSC rejected the ruling and reliance on specific language and 7 words.; USSC ruled tha free speech may be limited when speech is sexually explicit, the audience is children, or audience is captive. Haxelwoodv Kuhlmeier 1988 USSC School administrators have broad discretion to regulate the content of school sponsored publications, that students, parents, and public might reasonably perceive to bear the sanction or approval (imprimatour) of the school. Board of Regents of State Colleges v. Roth ; Perry V Sindermann Buaranteeing reasonable procedural safeguards to individual citizens has long been valued in our national heritage, dating from the English Magna Carta in 12 15.; USSC in these cases, determined that postprobationary or tenured teachers are entitled to due process of law under the 14th Amerndement before being terminated. Pickering v. Board of Education Teacherws enjoy a limited Frist Amendment right to express opinions criticizing the actions of the school administration when such expression is found to relate to matters of publicinterest or concern.; ; Marvin Pickering published an article critical of the board and superintendents handling of a school bond issue. The Church of the Holy Trinity v The U.S. 1891 Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of ecuation shall forever be encouraged. People v. Stanley 1927 One cannot each morality without teaching womething out of that book. Teh Bible is not sectarian, and is not inimical to the welfare of the child, but on the contrary contains lessons in good citizenship. haha Pierce v. Society of Sisters 1920s  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Oregon Socialization Law Oregon bill was passed in 1926 mandating that all children between the ages of 8 and 18 in the state of Oregon attend public schools Challenged by Society of Sisters of te Holy Names of Jesus and Mary challenged this.   USSC ruled that the state may reasonabley regulate schools and attendance, but the state may not deny the right to attend adequate private schools, nor force them to attend public schools.   Parental rights: states can not standardize children, chilren not creatures of the state; and Parents have more power than the tate. separation of church and state 3 landmark decisions Everson v. Board of Education 1947 Abington Township v. Schempp 1963 Lemon v. Kurtzman 1971 Everson v. Board of Education 1947 Building a Wall of SeparationEverson was a case about spending publicmonies to pay bus for parochial schools. Justice Hugo Black Requries the state to be neutral in its relations with groups of religious believers and non -believers, it does not require the state to be their adversary.   State power is no more to be used so as to handicap religions, than it is to favor them. The First Amendment has erected a wall between chruch and state.   That wall must be kept high and impregnable. We could not approve the slightests breach. Arbington Township v Schempp The Bible may not be taught devotionallly may be used as a historical context may be used as literature Lemon v Kurtzman 1971 The Constitution decrees that religion must be aprivatematter. Outlawed government involvement in activities which did not have a secular pupose advanced or inhibited religion fostered an excessive government entanglement with religion Bowen v. Kendrick 1988 Public Funds for Religiously oriented Teen sexuality program. USSC allowed this because it did not specify a certain religion. Lee v Weisman The USSC ruled that schoolsponsored benedictions or invocations at public school graduation ceremonies violate the first Amendment because:   Religious beliefs and religious expression are too precious to either be proscribed or prescribed by the State.   The design of the Constitution is that preservation and transmission of religious beliefs and worship is a responsibility and a choice committed to the private sphere. Lambs Chapel v Center Moriches Union Free SD Its a ok to show religious films at public buildings after school hours. Nevada AG responded Nevada Constitution does not prohibit use of school facilities by sectarian groups for occasional worship services outside of normal school hours if board to trustees of school district has created limited public forum and cost associated with use is reimbursed to school district.   However, board of trustees is not required to create limited public forum or permit sectarian activity. Zobrest v. Catalina Foothills School Dist., 1993 Allowed for a sign language interpreter for a private school kid paid for by the public school district; because it did not violate the first amendment. Agostini v. Felton 1997 Title I Services at Private or Private Religious School Sites USSC overturned their own 1985 ruling.   In 1985 Aguilar v Felton barred NYC Bof Ed from sending public school teachers to parochial school sites to provide the reuired remedial education services. Services had to be on neutral sites. In 1997   the USSC becasue of Zobriest (hearing impaired kid) overturned its own 1985 ruling, provding Title I services at parochial school sites and said they did not violate the Establishement Clasue.   Services from public school teachers did NOT have to be given on neutral sites.   Saved money. Mergens v. Bd of Ed. of the West side Comm. Schools 1990 Official Recognition for Bible Clubs? Bible Clubs were ruled by the USSC to be on par with chess clubs and other non school/academic activites. as long as meetings are held during noninstruction time. Students have the right to organize their own groups in public schools, whether they are religious, political, or philosophical. Brown v Woodland Joint USD 1994 Using Lee v Weisman, the USD ruled that no such message of endorsement existed of witchcraft or disapproval of Christianity in the Impressions series, whichis about Wicca. Nevada period of silence 1997 Every school district shall set aside a period at the beginning of each school day, during which all persons must be silent, for voluntary individual meditation, prayer or reflection by pupils.  Ã‚  Ã‚   NV AG the statue was enacted with a secular legislative purpose and does not advance or inhibit religion.   Florey v. Sioux Falls SD Relilgious Holidays and theatre and music allowed in public schools as long as it is not presented as indoctrination and presented in a prudent and objective manner and as a traditional part of the cultural and religious heritage of a particular holiday. Bauchman v West High School 1997 10th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the inclusion of religious music in public school choir selections may have a secular purpose becaseue it is recognized that a significant percentage of seriousl choral music is based on religious theses or text.   A music director is not actually proselytizeing when selecting music. Special Education Cases Mills v Board of Education of the District of Columbia P.A.R.C. v. Common wealth of Pennsylvania of early 1970s successfully challenged segregated, inconsistent, or nonexistent programs for educating children with disabilities. Rowley v Bd of Ed of Hendrick Hudson Central SD 1982 Interpreting Appropriate Education provide a floor of opportunity not guarantee a particular level of service or guarantee to maximize the potential of each child. Daniel RR V State Bd of Ed 1989 Least Restrictive Environtment Sacramento City USD v Rachel H 1994 Clyde K and Sheila K v Puyllap Sch. Dist 1994 Poolaw v Bishop 1995 Seattle Schoool Dist no. 1 v B.S. 1996 Discipline and procedural safeguards 2004 the Individuals with Disabilities ed Act amended and is called Individuals with Disabilities ed Improvement Act. Compaint notification Resolution sesion Mediation Due process hearing compare IDEA Section 504 and ADA ADA includes students with drug addictions or alcoholism that are not eligible ofr IDEA ADD or ADHD may be covered under 502 of Vocaitonal Rehabilitation Act More inclusive Rehabilitation Act of 1973 No exclusion from  participation in any program or activity receiving Federal Financial assistance. AIDs and Section 504 No discrimination allowed No serious risk notification required

The role of knowledge in operation management in general Essay

The role of knowledge in operation management in general - Essay Example Knowledge is viewed as the most imperative resource in any organization that wishes to prosper. Management of the resource is hence viewed as a discipline used for identifying, collecting, organizing, storage, and use of knowledge. Currently, companies operate in a highly competitive environment and hence there are more factors that lead to enterprise success. Previously, a company’s success was determined by investment of capital, size, and ability of labor, and availability of raw materials. However, an organization’s level of knowledge innovation from managers is a foremost influence of success and proper management. Knowledge management has been on the fore front during this new era where organizations run in a competitive market. Operation management traditionally used is not an appropriate strategy as a result of the rise in global competition. Knowledge in operation management helps in managing information, expertise, and knowledge through the operation management process. There are also knowledge management systems that assist managers in making better informed resolution (Waltz, 2003). Over the years, there has been a need to capture and distribute knowledge in organizations, and protect it like any other important asset. Operation managers should help in the process of leveraging knowledge chattels and information resources. They are also responsible for overseeing knowledge assets from acquisition to application, by use of controlled methods. Knowledge in an organization is embedded and passed using a number of aspects counting policies, traditions and identity, system, routines, document, and individual employees’ organizations (Dwivedi, Butcher, 2009). Knowledge in operations management is built by use of human resources, structural resources, technical resources and cultural resources. Combined they assist in proper use of

Identify Mystery Liquid Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Identify Mystery Liquid - Essay Example Handle hot beakers using beaker tongs. 2. Wear protective gear: gloves and overall. 3. be cautious while handling solutions such as drain cleaners since they are caustic. 4. Avoid eye and skin contact with the chemicals. 5. Wash out any contact with the chemicals with large quantities of water. Procedure: 1. Chop red cabbage into small pieces and place them in a 100-mL beaker and add 30 mL of distilled water. 2. Place the beaker on a hot plate, and allow the water to boil until a deep purple color appears. Using beaker tongs, carefully remove the hot beaker from the hot plate give it time to cool then transfer the red cabbage indicator to a clean beaker. 3. Place a clean microplate over a piece of white paper. Using pipets add 5 drops of lemon juice to L1; drain cleaner to L2, and Anti-freezer to L3. For each solution Use a clean pipet. 4. Draw the red cabbage indicator into a clean pipet, and to each solution L1-L3 add 5 drops of the red cabbage indicator. Stir the solutions careful ly using a stirring rod. 5. By clearly observing the three solutions, record the color changes in the data table. With reference to the color chart, record the approximate PH of every solution. Acid & Base Observations Solution color Approximate PH Inference Lemon Juice Light red 2 slightly acidic Drain Cleaner Yellow 13-14 Basic Anti-freezer Green 10.5 basic Conclusion From the above observation it very clear that the liquid found by Mr. Fischer was likely to be lemon juice and not drain cleaner or anti-freezer. Explanation Drain cleaner was found to have a PH of 13-14 which depicted a basic solution. The anti-freezer was found to have a PH of 10.5 depicting a basic solution too. Lemon juice was the only liquid found to be acidic. Lemon juice Corresponded to the liquid found in such a way that its acidic nature would corrode metals. DOCUMENT B pH OF COMMON SUBSTANCES WITH THEIR IUPAC NAMES: pH OF COMMON SUBSTANCES pH [H  3  O  +  ], M Example 0 1.0 Battery acid, 1 M sulfuri c acid 1 1 ? 10  ?2 Lemon juice 2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid 2 1 ? 10  ?3 Vinegar impure dilute acetic acid 3 1 ? 10  ?4 Soft drink sodium bicarbonate 4 1 ? 10  ?5 Rain water H2O 5 1 ? 10  ?6 Milk Lime calcium hydroxide 7 1 ? 10  ?8 Baking soda, sodium bicarbonate 8 1 ? 10  ?9 Washing soda, Na  2  CO  3 sodium carbonate 9 1 ? 10  ?10 Anti-freezer ethylene glycol 10 1 ? 10  ?11 Aqueous household ammonia, NH  3 11 1 ? 10  ?12 Limewater, aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide Common household chemicals (Katz 2-4) DOCUMENT C A household hazardous waste that can be identical to the liquid found in the house must have acidic properties, meaning that it may corrode metal containers and turn red cabbage indicator juice red. Corrosive substances can eat into skin and metal therefore they need to be handled with care and disposed correctly (Carboni 12). In this case we consider Vinegar which made from fermented wine, apple juice, or grain. Vinegar is ma de up of 5 percent acetic acid, thus it turns out to be mild acid. Vinegar has the capability to dissolve grease, mineral deposits, get of rid soap traces, deodorize, take out mildew or wax backlog, and refine some metals. Vinegar is able to clean stone or brick, and is used in making some carpet cleaning agents as an ingredient. Vinegar can be

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Museum assignment - Research Paper Example It was thought that only the priests and others who had taken religious orders could properly interpret God’s word, so it was forbidden for ordinary people to read the bible. Therefore, icons were painted and adorned churches in order to provide the salient stories from the bible for the public to allow them to contemplate and understand the bible. They were used for lessons and so that the people could remember the important parts of the bible, especially the New Testament and the Gospels, and also to inspire as the people believed that if they venerated the image of Jesus or a saint, their actions would pass on to the figure depicted (Lossky and Ouspenky 1999). Icons were created on all kinds of surfaces, including fine linen, wooden plaques and etchings on metal. What binds them together is the intent as a religious icon to venerate and upon which to meditate, the distinctive style with the figures generally lacking perspective or three dimensionality and the text which is true to the subject. The visual elements of this icon are consistent with the story from the New Testament of Christ’s entry into Jerusalem amid cheering crowds and joy, as he was recognized as the Savior. However, the Israelites thought the savior would come as an earthly king, so when it came to pass that Jesus was sacrificed instead, many did not believe He was the Savior. This icon represents Christ’s triumphant entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday, just a week before He would be sacrificed upon the cross. The twelve apostles are represented and they are the same size as Christ. There is a woman with a child dressed in red, which could have been Mary Magdalene, but who the child would be is a mystery. Christ’s mother, Mary, cannot be seen. The style is highly stylized in the Russian Orthodox style of iconography("Icon." 1-1). The perspective is all flat, as if

Existential Lit Final Paper Essay Example for Free

Existential Lit Final Paper Essay Part I 1. In Thomas Nagels â€Å"The Absurd† (1971), he begins by addressing the standard arguments for declaring life to be absurd. The first argument he points out is the idea that nothing humans doing in the present will matter in the distant future, or as Nagel says, â€Å"in a million years† (Nagel 716). People believe that what they do now wont matter at all in a million years, and that they are just one person living in the now that will soon be gone and will therefore not matter and dont matter. Humans see this not mattering as a reason why life is absurd, since if nothing matters then the point of life is questioned. The second standard argument Nagel looks at is the idea that humans â€Å"are tiny specks in the infinite vastness of the universe† (Nagel 717). This idea focuses around space and time, and how individual humans only live for an extremely short amount of time in a tremendously vast universe. People see this as a reason why life is absurd, looking at their lives as such short increments of time, especially on the large scale of the universe. Since humans are so small and take up such little time with their lives, this is seen as a reason life is absurd. The third argument Nagel looks at is about not being able to justifying all of lifes activities, since humans could die at any moment and will eventually. People go through sequences in life, one thing leading to the next, to accomplish something each step of the way, and therefore it is justified. However, eventually, life must end, and the chain of sequences will be cut off in the midst of one of the activities, and therefore will end without justification. â€Å"All of it is an elaborate journey leading to nowhere† (Nagel 717). These are the three standard arguments for explaining why life is absurd that Nagel discusses. Nagel, however, disagrees with these arguments and finds each invalid for specific reasons. When looking at the idea that nothing humans do now will matter in a million years, Nagel objects this with the realization that it doesnt matter now whether or not what we do now in a million years will matter or not. Whether what humans do now will matter in a million years or not is not important, because either way it wouldnt change how people feel now. â€Å"If their mattering now is not enough to accomplish that, how would it help if they mattered a million years from now? † (Nagel 716). If now doesnt matter in the future, than the future must not matter now, and therefore this explanation of why life is absurd is invalid. The second idea, focusing on life being absurd because of how small and short lived humans lives are, is contradicted by Nagels idea that if humans were larger presents in the universe theyre lives would still be just as absurd and that if humans lived for longer, or forever, there lives would just be absurd for that much longer, or even infinitely absurd. This thought of humans as living for such a short amount of time and being so tiny in the universe is clearly not what makes life absurd, even if life is absurd. These facts, if anything, would make humans lives more absurd, if they were larger presents in the universe or lived forever then the absurd would be even larger or last for eternity. Therefore, this is not a valid argument in saying that life is absurd. Looking at the third argument, which focuses on death preventing the justification of human lives and its many sequences, Nagel shows that this idea is actually false as life does not consist of these sequences that all have purposes and continuous justification. â€Å"Chains of justification come repeatedly to an end within life, and whether the process as a whole can be justified has no bearing on the finality of these end-points† (Nagel 717). Many things we do in our daily lives are already reasonable and do not need further justification, such as taking aspirin for a headache, Nagel points out. However, even if someone wanted to further justify any of lifes activities, this further justification would also have to end somewhere, as all things must. â€Å"If nothing can justify unless it is justified in terms of something outside itself, which is also justified, then an infinite regress results, and no chain of justification can be complete† (Nagel 717). All reasoning must end at some point and must be accepted as it is instead of looking at it as incomplete, because if it is looked at as incomplete then reasoning is impossible. With Nagels profound contradictions to these three arguments, he shows that these are not valid reasons to say that life is absurd. 2. Though Nagel discards the standard arguments for stating that life is absurd, he nonetheless says that life can be seen as absurd, just for different reasons than the previous ones discussed. He states that life is absurd because of the clash between humans tendency to take their lives so seriously and the ability of humans to doubt these things which they take so seriously or view them as arbitrary. Humans take their lives seriously, as seen through the idea that many things are necessities for living and that humans actions, such as making choices, are very important. However, humans also are capable of seeing things outside of their lives, which then creates doubt about the things that are taken so seriously. This idea that humans cannot live their live without this seriousness, yet can have a point of view outside of their lives that makes this seriousness doubtful, is why life is absurd. â€Å"It is absurd because we ignore the doubts that we know cannot be settled, continuing to live with nearing undiminished seriousness in spite of them† (Nagel 719). There is a clash between what people think is happening in life and what is truly happening, and because humans are able to have a point of view outside of their own life, they can see what is truly happening and therefore become doubtful of what they think is happening. However, they continue on with what they think is happening, or with this seriousness of life, even with the doubts from seeing what is truly happening. These two viewpoints, one within our own lives and one outside our lives, are both unavoidable yet clash with one another, and this, according to Nagel, is why life is absurd. Nagel states that humans take their lives seriously whether they live in a serious manor or not, and regardless of what their primary concerns in life are. â€Å"Human life is full of effort, plans, calculation, success and failure: we pursue our lives, with varying degrees of sloth and energy† (Nagel 719). Humans can reflect, make choices, question things, and decide what to peruse and what to avoid and who they want to be or become. This alone is signified, but when it clashes with humans ability to think outside themselves and survey this seriousness, it creates absurdity. â€Å"Yet humans have the special capacity to step back and survey themselves, and the lives to which they are committed, with that detached amazement which comes from watching an ant struggle up a head of sand† (Nagel 720). This ability to step back creates these doubts and questions about this seriousness life is taken with, doubts and questions about things that seem so sure before stepping back. Nagel explains: We step back to find that the whole system of justification and criticism, which controls our choices and supports our claims to rationality, rests on response and habits that we never question, that we should not know how to defend without circularity, and to which we shall continue to adhere even after they are called into question† (Nagel 720). According to Nagel, life is absurd not because humans are capable of this stepping back and reflecting on the seriousness of life, but because they then continue with their lives and taking them so serious even after doubts about the seriousness have been identified. 3. Nagel focuses on the idea that humans live absurd lives because of their self-consciousness, and therefore their ability to see themselves as humans and create this clash between seriousness and reality. With this, it can be said that God, all-knowing and self-aware, also lives an absurd life. The mouse Nagel refers to cannot have an absurd life because he is not self-aware, so he does not know he is a mouse and does not have the ability to reflect on this and create doubts about it. God, however, knows he is God and therefore has the ability to step back and have doubts. Being self-aware means that you doubt, and that every justification is doubted. This means that God, self-aware, doubts justifications, just like humans, and has an absurd life with the clash between these. When Nagel describes how the mouses life would be if he was self-aware, he says, â€Å" he would have to return to his meagre yet frantic life, full of doubts that he was unable to answer, but also full of purposes that he was unable to abandon† (Nagel 725). This sentence is applicable to Gods life being absurd, as God has a life full of doubts without answers due to his self-consciousness, but also has great purposes that he is unable to abandon, since he is the higher power that humans rely on. Also, like humans, God cannot refuse this consciousness, because to refuse it would mean he is aware of it, and it therefore he would already be self-aware. Since God cannot escape this self-consciousness, he is trapped, like humans, in this clash between his self-awareness and the seriousness that is taken with it and the doubt that comes with self-awareness where he reflects and doubts all justifications. This makes Gods life absurd, just like humans lives, as he too experiences the clash between self and reality. 4. Nagel stresses that absurdity is one of the most significant things that makes humans humans, and that it is essentially incurable. With this idea in mind, it can be seen that religion cannot cure the feeling of absurdity, and religious people live absurd lives just as all humans do. Humans lives are absurd because they have life goals and strive for things, which is the aspect of taking life seriously, but they also can step back and reflect on things and this causes doubts, which happens regardless of religion. â€Å"What makes doubt inescapable with regard to the limited aims of individual life also makes it inescapable with regard to any larger purpose that encourages the sense that life is meaningful† (Nagel 721). Believing in something larger does not allow escaping to occur, as it can be doubted in the same way that individual life can be. People use a higher being for comfort and to give their lives meaning and justification, however, as pointed out before, justifications end and humans no longer look any further. Moreover, religious people still have the humanistic qualities that all humans do that eventually lead to reflection and doubt. Another way of portraying religious peoples life as absurd just as nonreligious lives is to look at the idea of being self-conscious leading to absurdity and that this is a natural part of being human. â€Å"The only way to avoid the relevant self-consciousness would be either never to attain it or to forget it—neither of which can be achieved by the will† (Nagel 725). Religion does not change this unavoidable self-consciousness, and therefore life it still absurd with religion. The idea of religion is to provide meaning to life, however, if all humans are prone to this inevitable doubt, than this meaning will be doubted in the same way that life without meaning is doubted, or may even be doubted even more and therefore this creates a more significant contradiction, and may mean that religion makes life even more absurd. The gap between seriousness and reality is even larger in a life with religion because life is taken more serious, as there is this idea of more meaning, but still has the contradiction with reflection and doubt, hence a life with religion abets absurdity. Nagels main focus about religion is that it does not cure the feelings of absurdity because, regardless of being religious or not, humans cannot avoid this inevitable doubt of their seriousness, and therefore creating this clash which makes life absurd. â€Å"There does not appear to be any conceivable world (containing us) about which unsettlable doubts could not arise† (Nagel 722). Nagels idea about facing this absurdity is, rather than believing in something higher that gives life a certain meaning that does nothing but encourage absurdity, view life as ironic. He says to â€Å"approach our absurd lives with irony instead of heroism or despair† (Nagel 727). Heroism, as seen in religion, means to value life too much, whereas despair, seen in the depressed or suicidal, means to not value life enough or at all. However, to look at the absurdity of life with irony allows humans to live this contradicting life, aware of this contradiction, but continue to live it without denial, torment, or resentment. In Samuel Becketts Waiting for Godot (1953), this concept of absurdity seen from continuing seriousness even after doubting it is portrayed. Vladimir and Estragon have chosen enslavement to an authoritative figure, Godot, and though they have yet to see Godot or even get confirmation that he will eventually come, they still continue to wait for him. This is the same idea that religion brings to humans, as they can live their lives without signs from God or true meaning from religion, yet they still believe because it gives them a sense of purpose. However, this creates absurdity because, for religious people, they also doubt all of this purpose and meaning they are waiting for, and for Vladimir and Estragon, they doubt Godot will ever come. Towards the end of the play, it is clear that Vladimir has doubt about Godot and has a realization that he has been waiting for a long time and will continue to wait, possibly for eternity. He has this realization and doubt about his seriousness for waiting, yet continues to wait. This clash is what makes Vladimir and Estragons lives absurd, and is the same clash that is seen in religious lives as well. 5. According to Nagel, atheistic existentialists, such as Sartre and Camus, dwell on and blame the fact that God doesnt exist as the reason life is absurd. They believe that without God, our lives lack the meaning which they demand, and without this meaning our lives are meaningless, and therefore absurd. However, Nagel has already pointed out that this is not why life is absurd and that whether our lives have meaning or not does not change this clash between the seriousness which we take our lives and the reality that causes us to doubt the seriousness that is the true creator of absurdity. These atheistic existentialists view absurdity of humans lives as a problem, as something that needs a solution or to be fixed. Camus advice on dealing with this â€Å"problem† of absurdity is defiance. Nagel looks at Camus proposal, and says, â€Å"We can salvage our dignity, he appears to believe, by shaking a fist at the world which is deaf to our please, and continuing to live in spite of it† (Nagel 726). This, of course, will not rid our lives of absurdity, as this is not possible as long as we are self-aware and able to reflect, but Camus believes it will give humans at least a more fulfilled life. Nagel disagrees with these ideas, and says that the absurdity of human lives isnt even a problem at all. He falls back on his idea that absurdity is one of the most significant things that makes us human, and humans lives are only absurd because they posses the ability of a kind of insight that other species do not. â€Å"If a sense of the absurd is a way of perceiving our true situation (even though the situation is not absurd until the perception arises) then what reason can we have to resent or escape it? † (Nagel, 727). Nagel says that it is important that humans are aware of this absurdity, yet do not try to avoid it as it is not possible to do such a thing and one will only dwell on this attempt their entire life. Instead, as mentioned before, Nagel suggests the only way going about absurdity is to approach it with irony. It is important to not let this absurdity become torturous, but is also crucial to not allow it to force an avoidance or attempt to surpass the absurdity. The acknowledgment of the clash between seriousness and reality is important in acceptance and living life in between heroism and despair. If humans can look at their absurd lives with irony, the absurdity will be acknowledged, but will not effect their lives as to cause anything actually problematic from happening. Nagel also states that this absurdity is important because it exposes our human limitations and allows humans to understand these, so there is no reason to try to escape this. Nagels argument helps make sense of these atheistic existentialists works. For example, in Camus The Stranger (1942), the ending is very clear because Camus didnt believe in the idea of approaching absurdity with irony, so he did not end his book like this, and instead ended it with Maurseult approaching the absurdity with the dramatic feeling that Nagel discourages. Maurseult is unable to find irony in his absurd life, and blames Gods nonexistence for his inability to justify morals. It is clear that this happens because these are Camus beliefs, and Nagel portrays these as making a problem out of absurdity that shouldnt be a problem at all. Jean-Paul Sartre, also an atheistic existentialist according to Nagel, falls back on the idea that existence proceeds essence, and in that way humans achieve absolute freedom. However, this idea is contradicted by Nagel when he says that humans are born into absurdity and there is no escaping it, as it would have to have been never attained or forgotten, which is impossible to do if its part of humans from the start. Nagels ideas about absurdity, such that it is unavoidable yet not necessarily a problem, contradict these atheistic existentialists ideas, and he ends with he belief that contrary to what these existentialists say, humans must approach their absurd lives with irony, because if nothing matters, than it wouldnt matter to do anything other than this. Part II a. â€Å"Existentialism Is a Humanism†, by Jean-Paul Sartre (1946), focuses on freedom as the bases of morality. Sartre defends existentialism as being a moral philosophy by contradicting arguments against this idea with his own thoughts. The first idea that Sartre rejects is that which claims existentialism allows people to â€Å"dwell in the quietism of despair† (Sartre 1). In his argument against this he focuses on the concept that existence proceeds essence, where humans first exist before anything else, such as defining themselves. â€Å"Man simply is. Not that he is simply what he conceives himself to be, but he is what he wills, and as he conceives himself after already existing—as he wills to be after that leap towards existence† (Sartre 2). This is what Sartre refers to as the first principle of existentialism. The next idea Sartre argues against is that existentialism is a pessimistic view, however, he says that existentialism actually reflects severe optimism. He gives the example of the way an existentialist looks at a coward and sees him as personally responsible for being a coward, as something he chooses and commits to, which is an optimist way of looking at such a thing. Sartre then looks at the idea of subjectivity, which is argued as a negative aspect of existentialism as it is seen as living a solitude and therefore selfish or egotistical life, and conveys two meanings for â€Å"subjectivism†. One meaning he points out is the freedom of an individual, and the other meaning refers to man unable to further himself beyond human subjectivity. This is a further look at existence proceeding essence, as it shows that humans do not choose being human but they do choose their actions after becoming humans, and by choosing for ones self, one chooses for all humans. This shows, therefore, that existentialists view humans as not individuals whom are selfish, but rather that their actions speak for all humans. The last argument Sartre rejects is that existentialism denies reality and the seriousness of humanity. However, according to Sartre, existentialism is humanist when looking at a fundamental definition of the word. â€Å"Man is all the time outside of himself: it is in projecting and losing himself beyond himself that he makes man to exist; and, on the other hand, it is by pursuing transcendent aims that he himself is able to exist† (Sartre 13). Existentialists believe that there is no human action that doesnt have an explanation, and if an action has an explanation it is human. These ideas portray Sartes position that existentialism is a moral philosophy and that it is a humanism. However, his ideas are not enough to make this statement. He focuses deeply on the idea of freedom and that because humans are free as seen by existentialists, existentialism is a moral philosophy. For existentialism to be completely moral, however, it would have to compliment Sartes idea of freedom with other values, such as charity, kindness, and serving our duty to the world and others, as this is what is truly moral and humanitarian. Complimenting freedom with something else though would take some freedom away and therefore his idea of the moral system being based on freedom is invalid. One example Sartre provides to express this idea of freedom being the basis for existentialism, and the reason it is moral, is about a man facing a moral dilemma. He must choose between either staying with his mother, whom has been abandoned by everyone else in her life and only has this one son left, or leaving her, alone and empty, to go join the Free French Forces. He looks at this as a moral dilemma, however, this is not a moral dilemma because both choices are good. A moral dilemma is one where an individual is faced with two options and picks the one which is good and leaves the other which is not good. However, whether this man stays with his mother or goes to fight for a cause, he is choosing between two goods and therefore is not making a moral decision. Sartre also looks at the idea that existentialism leaves you uncertain and that all moral decisions operate with a degree of uncertainty. This, to an extent, is true, and it is not wise to base decisions on certainty of the future. However, there are actions that are possible, and should be, taken based on their consequences. For example, the question of whether one should push another individual off an enormous cliff seems very certain. It is true that life is uncertain, but there is quite a high chance that that individual, if pushed off the cliff, will fall and die. The immediate and certain consequences seen in life are not mentioned and are ignored in Sartres moral system of existentialism, and therefore is not enough to make this claim. Sartre focuses on this idea that freedom is what makes existentialism a moral philosophy, however, true morality limits freedom, and there is so much more to morality than what Sartre mentions. b. Ivan Ilytch and Meursault both experience an epiphany at the end of their lives, and therefore die as happy men. Both men lived selfish lives, unaware of what life truly was about. They both lived under an idea of what they thought was the right way to live, with Ivan attempting to live a normal life, fitting into society, and Meursault living a life in effort to embody the universe. Both of these life styles were structured and allowed the men to just follow guidelines which they believed was the right thing to do. However, this was selfish as it led to them ignoring the rest of the world, such as their families and other aspects of true happiness. Meursault went through life seeing it as meaningless and therefore claims he believes in nothing. However, the fact that he in so deeply devoted to this meaningless shows that he believes in this meaninglessness. This becomes clear when Meursault is talking to the priest and realizes that his uncertainty was just as strong as the priests certainty about everything, and when he says that the priest was living like a dead man he realizes that it was really him who was doing such a thing. Meursault comes to terms with the fact the he so deeply believes that nothing matters and life is meaningless, and in doing so he looses his temper and becomes emotional and passionate about something for once in his life. This same insight about realizing that life is not so structured and that it is about existing and having fulfillment is seen in Ivan when, as he is laying on his death bed, he becomes aware that there is no goal in life. He spent his whole life chasing something, but finally realizes that this is not what life is about, as he already had things in his life that could have given him fulfillment, such as his family. As he looks at his son and is overcome by this realization, he is finally happy. Meursault also was pursing something in life, that of embodying the universe, but he too sees that this is not what life is about. Soon before he dies, he really sees the world for the first time in his life, the smells and sounds that it holds, and is happy. He even thinks about his mother and shows a side, lacking selfishness, that he had never shown before. With this thoughtfulness, as well as recognizing that nothing matters and there is no meaning, he finally gives himself the fulfillment that life is truly about and feels happiness. c. In Samuel Becketts Waiting for Godot (1953), two men wait for an authoritative figure to appear and convey a message, telling them what to do and what to live for. This is a constant part of society, where humans continue â€Å"waiting† and spend their entire lives hoping the universe will tell them something. The play symbolizes this human waiting and longing for something more in many ways throughout it. Estragon cannot take his shoes off, symbolizing that he is stuck on earth and nothing can be done as he cannot escape. Vladimir looks at his hat, as if to find something in it that tells him something or gives some sort of sign, but finds nothing and continues to gaze at the horizon, which holds hope and something more than this life theyre stuck in. However, as trapped and unhappy as they are, as they even considered suicide, they do not give up hope. In fact, they decide against suicide because they must wait for Godot to come and see what he offers, and then they will decide what to do from there. Vladimir and Estragon cannot stop their wanting to live as they want to live for something, so they are hoping that Godot will give them something to live for, even though he already is just from the hope that he might come. They have lost track of time and are unsure of whether they were here yesterday, as waiting tends to make people lose track of time since it is just what humans do and is inherent in our human condition. In metaphysical time, it is always just now, and waiting is eternal. When two new characters enter the scene, Pozzo and Lucky, the main characters become puzzled. Lucky, who is seemingly not so lucky, carries Pozzos bags for him, but he never puts them down, and he obeys Pozzos every command. Vladimir and Estragon wonder why this is, and why Lucky even puts up with Pozzo. Lucky, however, is not much different from Vladimir and Estragon, as he just seeks authority. He wants this enslavement, where he is told what to do and think and how to live. Vladimir and Estragon have their own symbolic bags that they too refuse to put down, as seen through their choice to continue to wait for Godot, with no one telling them they must wait but it being their own decision to do so and continue to do so. When Vladimir and Estragon find themselves worried that Pozzo wants to get rid of Lucky and leave him behind, it symbolizes that they too are worried of being left behind by Godot. This constant desire for authority is something seen in this play as well as in society, as humans are very frightful of being alone or without someone to tell them what to do or how to live. Though Vladimir and Estragons decision to wait is questionable, it does however give them something to do and comes from a command from authority. As mentioned before, though Godot isnt there, Godot is still ruling over them and gives them the authority that is so desperately sought for. This enslavement to Godot seen in Vladimir and Estragon is actually rather admirable, as it shows their devotion and commitment. The patience seen in their servitude conveys their faith and religious spirit. It brings them hope and a sort of comfort to continue this faith and commitment. When the boy comes the second time to deliver Godots message, Vladimir seems to know that the same thing happened yesterday, and that it will continue to happen, but he still continues to wait. The boy does not tell Vladimir that he will convey his message to Godot and does not give Vladimir his desired recognition that this is real, and Godot has not shown up, yet Vladimir and Estragon still continues to wait and do not lose hope. This idea that they are not just existing as humans but are devoting themselves to this higher authority shows that their existential journey leads beyond existentialism, as they continue to wait by choice but are being controlled by the idea of something more.