Museum assignment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Museum assignment - Research Paper Example It was thought that only the priests and others who had taken religious orders could properly interpret God’s word, so it was forbidden for ordinary people to read the bible. Therefore, icons were painted and adorned churches in order to provide the salient stories from the bible for the public to allow them to contemplate and understand the bible. They were used for lessons and so that the people could remember the important parts of the bible, especially the New Testament and the Gospels, and also to inspire as the people believed that if they venerated the image of Jesus or a saint, their actions would pass on to the figure depicted (Lossky and Ouspenky 1999). Icons were created on all kinds of surfaces, including fine linen, wooden plaques and etchings on metal. What binds them together is the intent as a religious icon to venerate and upon which to meditate, the distinctive style with the figures generally lacking perspective or three dimensionality and the text which is true to the subject. The visual elements of this icon are consistent with the story from the New Testament of Christ’s entry into Jerusalem amid cheering crowds and joy, as he was recognized as the Savior. However, the Israelites thought the savior would come as an earthly king, so when it came to pass that Jesus was sacrificed instead, many did not believe He was the Savior. This icon represents Christ’s triumphant entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday, just a week before He would be sacrificed upon the cross. The twelve apostles are represented and they are the same size as Christ. There is a woman with a child dressed in red, which could have been Mary Magdalene, but who the child would be is a mystery. Christ’s mother, Mary, cannot be seen. The style is highly stylized in the Russian Orthodox style of iconography("Icon." 1-1). The perspective is all flat, as if

Existential Lit Final Paper Essay Example for Free

Existential Lit Final Paper Essay Part I 1. In Thomas Nagels â€Å"The Absurd† (1971), he begins by addressing the standard arguments for declaring life to be absurd. The first argument he points out is the idea that nothing humans doing in the present will matter in the distant future, or as Nagel says, â€Å"in a million years† (Nagel 716). People believe that what they do now wont matter at all in a million years, and that they are just one person living in the now that will soon be gone and will therefore not matter and dont matter. Humans see this not mattering as a reason why life is absurd, since if nothing matters then the point of life is questioned. The second standard argument Nagel looks at is the idea that humans â€Å"are tiny specks in the infinite vastness of the universe† (Nagel 717). This idea focuses around space and time, and how individual humans only live for an extremely short amount of time in a tremendously vast universe. People see this as a reason why life is absurd, looking at their lives as such short increments of time, especially on the large scale of the universe. Since humans are so small and take up such little time with their lives, this is seen as a reason life is absurd. The third argument Nagel looks at is about not being able to justifying all of lifes activities, since humans could die at any moment and will eventually. People go through sequences in life, one thing leading to the next, to accomplish something each step of the way, and therefore it is justified. However, eventually, life must end, and the chain of sequences will be cut off in the midst of one of the activities, and therefore will end without justification. â€Å"All of it is an elaborate journey leading to nowhere† (Nagel 717). These are the three standard arguments for explaining why life is absurd that Nagel discusses. Nagel, however, disagrees with these arguments and finds each invalid for specific reasons. When looking at the idea that nothing humans do now will matter in a million years, Nagel objects this with the realization that it doesnt matter now whether or not what we do now in a million years will matter or not. Whether what humans do now will matter in a million years or not is not important, because either way it wouldnt change how people feel now. â€Å"If their mattering now is not enough to accomplish that, how would it help if they mattered a million years from now? † (Nagel 716). If now doesnt matter in the future, than the future must not matter now, and therefore this explanation of why life is absurd is invalid. The second idea, focusing on life being absurd because of how small and short lived humans lives are, is contradicted by Nagels idea that if humans were larger presents in the universe theyre lives would still be just as absurd and that if humans lived for longer, or forever, there lives would just be absurd for that much longer, or even infinitely absurd. This thought of humans as living for such a short amount of time and being so tiny in the universe is clearly not what makes life absurd, even if life is absurd. These facts, if anything, would make humans lives more absurd, if they were larger presents in the universe or lived forever then the absurd would be even larger or last for eternity. Therefore, this is not a valid argument in saying that life is absurd. Looking at the third argument, which focuses on death preventing the justification of human lives and its many sequences, Nagel shows that this idea is actually false as life does not consist of these sequences that all have purposes and continuous justification. â€Å"Chains of justification come repeatedly to an end within life, and whether the process as a whole can be justified has no bearing on the finality of these end-points† (Nagel 717). Many things we do in our daily lives are already reasonable and do not need further justification, such as taking aspirin for a headache, Nagel points out. However, even if someone wanted to further justify any of lifes activities, this further justification would also have to end somewhere, as all things must. â€Å"If nothing can justify unless it is justified in terms of something outside itself, which is also justified, then an infinite regress results, and no chain of justification can be complete† (Nagel 717). All reasoning must end at some point and must be accepted as it is instead of looking at it as incomplete, because if it is looked at as incomplete then reasoning is impossible. With Nagels profound contradictions to these three arguments, he shows that these are not valid reasons to say that life is absurd. 2. Though Nagel discards the standard arguments for stating that life is absurd, he nonetheless says that life can be seen as absurd, just for different reasons than the previous ones discussed. He states that life is absurd because of the clash between humans tendency to take their lives so seriously and the ability of humans to doubt these things which they take so seriously or view them as arbitrary. Humans take their lives seriously, as seen through the idea that many things are necessities for living and that humans actions, such as making choices, are very important. However, humans also are capable of seeing things outside of their lives, which then creates doubt about the things that are taken so seriously. This idea that humans cannot live their live without this seriousness, yet can have a point of view outside of their lives that makes this seriousness doubtful, is why life is absurd. â€Å"It is absurd because we ignore the doubts that we know cannot be settled, continuing to live with nearing undiminished seriousness in spite of them† (Nagel 719). There is a clash between what people think is happening in life and what is truly happening, and because humans are able to have a point of view outside of their own life, they can see what is truly happening and therefore become doubtful of what they think is happening. However, they continue on with what they think is happening, or with this seriousness of life, even with the doubts from seeing what is truly happening. These two viewpoints, one within our own lives and one outside our lives, are both unavoidable yet clash with one another, and this, according to Nagel, is why life is absurd. Nagel states that humans take their lives seriously whether they live in a serious manor or not, and regardless of what their primary concerns in life are. â€Å"Human life is full of effort, plans, calculation, success and failure: we pursue our lives, with varying degrees of sloth and energy† (Nagel 719). Humans can reflect, make choices, question things, and decide what to peruse and what to avoid and who they want to be or become. This alone is signified, but when it clashes with humans ability to think outside themselves and survey this seriousness, it creates absurdity. â€Å"Yet humans have the special capacity to step back and survey themselves, and the lives to which they are committed, with that detached amazement which comes from watching an ant struggle up a head of sand† (Nagel 720). This ability to step back creates these doubts and questions about this seriousness life is taken with, doubts and questions about things that seem so sure before stepping back. Nagel explains: We step back to find that the whole system of justification and criticism, which controls our choices and supports our claims to rationality, rests on response and habits that we never question, that we should not know how to defend without circularity, and to which we shall continue to adhere even after they are called into question† (Nagel 720). According to Nagel, life is absurd not because humans are capable of this stepping back and reflecting on the seriousness of life, but because they then continue with their lives and taking them so serious even after doubts about the seriousness have been identified. 3. Nagel focuses on the idea that humans live absurd lives because of their self-consciousness, and therefore their ability to see themselves as humans and create this clash between seriousness and reality. With this, it can be said that God, all-knowing and self-aware, also lives an absurd life. The mouse Nagel refers to cannot have an absurd life because he is not self-aware, so he does not know he is a mouse and does not have the ability to reflect on this and create doubts about it. God, however, knows he is God and therefore has the ability to step back and have doubts. Being self-aware means that you doubt, and that every justification is doubted. This means that God, self-aware, doubts justifications, just like humans, and has an absurd life with the clash between these. When Nagel describes how the mouses life would be if he was self-aware, he says, â€Å" he would have to return to his meagre yet frantic life, full of doubts that he was unable to answer, but also full of purposes that he was unable to abandon† (Nagel 725). This sentence is applicable to Gods life being absurd, as God has a life full of doubts without answers due to his self-consciousness, but also has great purposes that he is unable to abandon, since he is the higher power that humans rely on. Also, like humans, God cannot refuse this consciousness, because to refuse it would mean he is aware of it, and it therefore he would already be self-aware. Since God cannot escape this self-consciousness, he is trapped, like humans, in this clash between his self-awareness and the seriousness that is taken with it and the doubt that comes with self-awareness where he reflects and doubts all justifications. This makes Gods life absurd, just like humans lives, as he too experiences the clash between self and reality. 4. Nagel stresses that absurdity is one of the most significant things that makes humans humans, and that it is essentially incurable. With this idea in mind, it can be seen that religion cannot cure the feeling of absurdity, and religious people live absurd lives just as all humans do. Humans lives are absurd because they have life goals and strive for things, which is the aspect of taking life seriously, but they also can step back and reflect on things and this causes doubts, which happens regardless of religion. â€Å"What makes doubt inescapable with regard to the limited aims of individual life also makes it inescapable with regard to any larger purpose that encourages the sense that life is meaningful† (Nagel 721). Believing in something larger does not allow escaping to occur, as it can be doubted in the same way that individual life can be. People use a higher being for comfort and to give their lives meaning and justification, however, as pointed out before, justifications end and humans no longer look any further. Moreover, religious people still have the humanistic qualities that all humans do that eventually lead to reflection and doubt. Another way of portraying religious peoples life as absurd just as nonreligious lives is to look at the idea of being self-conscious leading to absurdity and that this is a natural part of being human. â€Å"The only way to avoid the relevant self-consciousness would be either never to attain it or to forget it—neither of which can be achieved by the will† (Nagel 725). Religion does not change this unavoidable self-consciousness, and therefore life it still absurd with religion. The idea of religion is to provide meaning to life, however, if all humans are prone to this inevitable doubt, than this meaning will be doubted in the same way that life without meaning is doubted, or may even be doubted even more and therefore this creates a more significant contradiction, and may mean that religion makes life even more absurd. The gap between seriousness and reality is even larger in a life with religion because life is taken more serious, as there is this idea of more meaning, but still has the contradiction with reflection and doubt, hence a life with religion abets absurdity. Nagels main focus about religion is that it does not cure the feelings of absurdity because, regardless of being religious or not, humans cannot avoid this inevitable doubt of their seriousness, and therefore creating this clash which makes life absurd. â€Å"There does not appear to be any conceivable world (containing us) about which unsettlable doubts could not arise† (Nagel 722). Nagels idea about facing this absurdity is, rather than believing in something higher that gives life a certain meaning that does nothing but encourage absurdity, view life as ironic. He says to â€Å"approach our absurd lives with irony instead of heroism or despair† (Nagel 727). Heroism, as seen in religion, means to value life too much, whereas despair, seen in the depressed or suicidal, means to not value life enough or at all. However, to look at the absurdity of life with irony allows humans to live this contradicting life, aware of this contradiction, but continue to live it without denial, torment, or resentment. In Samuel Becketts Waiting for Godot (1953), this concept of absurdity seen from continuing seriousness even after doubting it is portrayed. Vladimir and Estragon have chosen enslavement to an authoritative figure, Godot, and though they have yet to see Godot or even get confirmation that he will eventually come, they still continue to wait for him. This is the same idea that religion brings to humans, as they can live their lives without signs from God or true meaning from religion, yet they still believe because it gives them a sense of purpose. However, this creates absurdity because, for religious people, they also doubt all of this purpose and meaning they are waiting for, and for Vladimir and Estragon, they doubt Godot will ever come. Towards the end of the play, it is clear that Vladimir has doubt about Godot and has a realization that he has been waiting for a long time and will continue to wait, possibly for eternity. He has this realization and doubt about his seriousness for waiting, yet continues to wait. This clash is what makes Vladimir and Estragons lives absurd, and is the same clash that is seen in religious lives as well. 5. According to Nagel, atheistic existentialists, such as Sartre and Camus, dwell on and blame the fact that God doesnt exist as the reason life is absurd. They believe that without God, our lives lack the meaning which they demand, and without this meaning our lives are meaningless, and therefore absurd. However, Nagel has already pointed out that this is not why life is absurd and that whether our lives have meaning or not does not change this clash between the seriousness which we take our lives and the reality that causes us to doubt the seriousness that is the true creator of absurdity. These atheistic existentialists view absurdity of humans lives as a problem, as something that needs a solution or to be fixed. Camus advice on dealing with this â€Å"problem† of absurdity is defiance. Nagel looks at Camus proposal, and says, â€Å"We can salvage our dignity, he appears to believe, by shaking a fist at the world which is deaf to our please, and continuing to live in spite of it† (Nagel 726). This, of course, will not rid our lives of absurdity, as this is not possible as long as we are self-aware and able to reflect, but Camus believes it will give humans at least a more fulfilled life. Nagel disagrees with these ideas, and says that the absurdity of human lives isnt even a problem at all. He falls back on his idea that absurdity is one of the most significant things that makes us human, and humans lives are only absurd because they posses the ability of a kind of insight that other species do not. â€Å"If a sense of the absurd is a way of perceiving our true situation (even though the situation is not absurd until the perception arises) then what reason can we have to resent or escape it? † (Nagel, 727). Nagel says that it is important that humans are aware of this absurdity, yet do not try to avoid it as it is not possible to do such a thing and one will only dwell on this attempt their entire life. Instead, as mentioned before, Nagel suggests the only way going about absurdity is to approach it with irony. It is important to not let this absurdity become torturous, but is also crucial to not allow it to force an avoidance or attempt to surpass the absurdity. The acknowledgment of the clash between seriousness and reality is important in acceptance and living life in between heroism and despair. If humans can look at their absurd lives with irony, the absurdity will be acknowledged, but will not effect their lives as to cause anything actually problematic from happening. Nagel also states that this absurdity is important because it exposes our human limitations and allows humans to understand these, so there is no reason to try to escape this. Nagels argument helps make sense of these atheistic existentialists works. For example, in Camus The Stranger (1942), the ending is very clear because Camus didnt believe in the idea of approaching absurdity with irony, so he did not end his book like this, and instead ended it with Maurseult approaching the absurdity with the dramatic feeling that Nagel discourages. Maurseult is unable to find irony in his absurd life, and blames Gods nonexistence for his inability to justify morals. It is clear that this happens because these are Camus beliefs, and Nagel portrays these as making a problem out of absurdity that shouldnt be a problem at all. Jean-Paul Sartre, also an atheistic existentialist according to Nagel, falls back on the idea that existence proceeds essence, and in that way humans achieve absolute freedom. However, this idea is contradicted by Nagel when he says that humans are born into absurdity and there is no escaping it, as it would have to have been never attained or forgotten, which is impossible to do if its part of humans from the start. Nagels ideas about absurdity, such that it is unavoidable yet not necessarily a problem, contradict these atheistic existentialists ideas, and he ends with he belief that contrary to what these existentialists say, humans must approach their absurd lives with irony, because if nothing matters, than it wouldnt matter to do anything other than this. Part II a. â€Å"Existentialism Is a Humanism†, by Jean-Paul Sartre (1946), focuses on freedom as the bases of morality. Sartre defends existentialism as being a moral philosophy by contradicting arguments against this idea with his own thoughts. The first idea that Sartre rejects is that which claims existentialism allows people to â€Å"dwell in the quietism of despair† (Sartre 1). In his argument against this he focuses on the concept that existence proceeds essence, where humans first exist before anything else, such as defining themselves. â€Å"Man simply is. Not that he is simply what he conceives himself to be, but he is what he wills, and as he conceives himself after already existing—as he wills to be after that leap towards existence† (Sartre 2). This is what Sartre refers to as the first principle of existentialism. The next idea Sartre argues against is that existentialism is a pessimistic view, however, he says that existentialism actually reflects severe optimism. He gives the example of the way an existentialist looks at a coward and sees him as personally responsible for being a coward, as something he chooses and commits to, which is an optimist way of looking at such a thing. Sartre then looks at the idea of subjectivity, which is argued as a negative aspect of existentialism as it is seen as living a solitude and therefore selfish or egotistical life, and conveys two meanings for â€Å"subjectivism†. One meaning he points out is the freedom of an individual, and the other meaning refers to man unable to further himself beyond human subjectivity. This is a further look at existence proceeding essence, as it shows that humans do not choose being human but they do choose their actions after becoming humans, and by choosing for ones self, one chooses for all humans. This shows, therefore, that existentialists view humans as not individuals whom are selfish, but rather that their actions speak for all humans. The last argument Sartre rejects is that existentialism denies reality and the seriousness of humanity. However, according to Sartre, existentialism is humanist when looking at a fundamental definition of the word. â€Å"Man is all the time outside of himself: it is in projecting and losing himself beyond himself that he makes man to exist; and, on the other hand, it is by pursuing transcendent aims that he himself is able to exist† (Sartre 13). Existentialists believe that there is no human action that doesnt have an explanation, and if an action has an explanation it is human. These ideas portray Sartes position that existentialism is a moral philosophy and that it is a humanism. However, his ideas are not enough to make this statement. He focuses deeply on the idea of freedom and that because humans are free as seen by existentialists, existentialism is a moral philosophy. For existentialism to be completely moral, however, it would have to compliment Sartes idea of freedom with other values, such as charity, kindness, and serving our duty to the world and others, as this is what is truly moral and humanitarian. Complimenting freedom with something else though would take some freedom away and therefore his idea of the moral system being based on freedom is invalid. One example Sartre provides to express this idea of freedom being the basis for existentialism, and the reason it is moral, is about a man facing a moral dilemma. He must choose between either staying with his mother, whom has been abandoned by everyone else in her life and only has this one son left, or leaving her, alone and empty, to go join the Free French Forces. He looks at this as a moral dilemma, however, this is not a moral dilemma because both choices are good. A moral dilemma is one where an individual is faced with two options and picks the one which is good and leaves the other which is not good. However, whether this man stays with his mother or goes to fight for a cause, he is choosing between two goods and therefore is not making a moral decision. Sartre also looks at the idea that existentialism leaves you uncertain and that all moral decisions operate with a degree of uncertainty. This, to an extent, is true, and it is not wise to base decisions on certainty of the future. However, there are actions that are possible, and should be, taken based on their consequences. For example, the question of whether one should push another individual off an enormous cliff seems very certain. It is true that life is uncertain, but there is quite a high chance that that individual, if pushed off the cliff, will fall and die. The immediate and certain consequences seen in life are not mentioned and are ignored in Sartres moral system of existentialism, and therefore is not enough to make this claim. Sartre focuses on this idea that freedom is what makes existentialism a moral philosophy, however, true morality limits freedom, and there is so much more to morality than what Sartre mentions. b. Ivan Ilytch and Meursault both experience an epiphany at the end of their lives, and therefore die as happy men. Both men lived selfish lives, unaware of what life truly was about. They both lived under an idea of what they thought was the right way to live, with Ivan attempting to live a normal life, fitting into society, and Meursault living a life in effort to embody the universe. Both of these life styles were structured and allowed the men to just follow guidelines which they believed was the right thing to do. However, this was selfish as it led to them ignoring the rest of the world, such as their families and other aspects of true happiness. Meursault went through life seeing it as meaningless and therefore claims he believes in nothing. However, the fact that he in so deeply devoted to this meaningless shows that he believes in this meaninglessness. This becomes clear when Meursault is talking to the priest and realizes that his uncertainty was just as strong as the priests certainty about everything, and when he says that the priest was living like a dead man he realizes that it was really him who was doing such a thing. Meursault comes to terms with the fact the he so deeply believes that nothing matters and life is meaningless, and in doing so he looses his temper and becomes emotional and passionate about something for once in his life. This same insight about realizing that life is not so structured and that it is about existing and having fulfillment is seen in Ivan when, as he is laying on his death bed, he becomes aware that there is no goal in life. He spent his whole life chasing something, but finally realizes that this is not what life is about, as he already had things in his life that could have given him fulfillment, such as his family. As he looks at his son and is overcome by this realization, he is finally happy. Meursault also was pursing something in life, that of embodying the universe, but he too sees that this is not what life is about. Soon before he dies, he really sees the world for the first time in his life, the smells and sounds that it holds, and is happy. He even thinks about his mother and shows a side, lacking selfishness, that he had never shown before. With this thoughtfulness, as well as recognizing that nothing matters and there is no meaning, he finally gives himself the fulfillment that life is truly about and feels happiness. c. In Samuel Becketts Waiting for Godot (1953), two men wait for an authoritative figure to appear and convey a message, telling them what to do and what to live for. This is a constant part of society, where humans continue â€Å"waiting† and spend their entire lives hoping the universe will tell them something. The play symbolizes this human waiting and longing for something more in many ways throughout it. Estragon cannot take his shoes off, symbolizing that he is stuck on earth and nothing can be done as he cannot escape. Vladimir looks at his hat, as if to find something in it that tells him something or gives some sort of sign, but finds nothing and continues to gaze at the horizon, which holds hope and something more than this life theyre stuck in. However, as trapped and unhappy as they are, as they even considered suicide, they do not give up hope. In fact, they decide against suicide because they must wait for Godot to come and see what he offers, and then they will decide what to do from there. Vladimir and Estragon cannot stop their wanting to live as they want to live for something, so they are hoping that Godot will give them something to live for, even though he already is just from the hope that he might come. They have lost track of time and are unsure of whether they were here yesterday, as waiting tends to make people lose track of time since it is just what humans do and is inherent in our human condition. In metaphysical time, it is always just now, and waiting is eternal. When two new characters enter the scene, Pozzo and Lucky, the main characters become puzzled. Lucky, who is seemingly not so lucky, carries Pozzos bags for him, but he never puts them down, and he obeys Pozzos every command. Vladimir and Estragon wonder why this is, and why Lucky even puts up with Pozzo. Lucky, however, is not much different from Vladimir and Estragon, as he just seeks authority. He wants this enslavement, where he is told what to do and think and how to live. Vladimir and Estragon have their own symbolic bags that they too refuse to put down, as seen through their choice to continue to wait for Godot, with no one telling them they must wait but it being their own decision to do so and continue to do so. When Vladimir and Estragon find themselves worried that Pozzo wants to get rid of Lucky and leave him behind, it symbolizes that they too are worried of being left behind by Godot. This constant desire for authority is something seen in this play as well as in society, as humans are very frightful of being alone or without someone to tell them what to do or how to live. Though Vladimir and Estragons decision to wait is questionable, it does however give them something to do and comes from a command from authority. As mentioned before, though Godot isnt there, Godot is still ruling over them and gives them the authority that is so desperately sought for. This enslavement to Godot seen in Vladimir and Estragon is actually rather admirable, as it shows their devotion and commitment. The patience seen in their servitude conveys their faith and religious spirit. It brings them hope and a sort of comfort to continue this faith and commitment. When the boy comes the second time to deliver Godots message, Vladimir seems to know that the same thing happened yesterday, and that it will continue to happen, but he still continues to wait. The boy does not tell Vladimir that he will convey his message to Godot and does not give Vladimir his desired recognition that this is real, and Godot has not shown up, yet Vladimir and Estragon still continues to wait and do not lose hope. This idea that they are not just existing as humans but are devoting themselves to this higher authority shows that their existential journey leads beyond existentialism, as they continue to wait by choice but are being controlled by the idea of something more.

meteorology :: essays research papers

Midterm 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  METAR CYSX 161700Z 24015KT 3SM – SN OVC015 –4/-5 aq3006 RMK SC8 SLP221 In the weather report above, what is the: (include units) (6 marks) Wind  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Prevailing Visibility  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Current Weather  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Clouds (base and type)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Temperature / Dew Point  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Altimeter Setting  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Name two weather elements normally found in a Metar that will not be reported in a SPECI. (2 marks) 3. â€Å"SKC† in a TAF stands for ____________________________________________. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Decode completely ‘1/2SM + RA BR VV020’. (3 marks) 5. TAF CYPR 061742Z 061806 26015G25KT P6SM SCT020 BKN060 FM1800Z 33015G25KT P6SM SCT012 BKN025 TEMPO 18045SM – SHRAOVC012 FM0400Z 33020G30KT 3SM – SHRA BR OVC005 BECMG 0305 P6SM NSW SCT005 OVC012 (a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What is the period of this TAF? (2 marks) (b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At 2000Z what is the forecast surface wind? (2 marks) (c)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What is the lowest ceiling forecast between 18 and 06Z? (d)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At 0500Z what weather conditions are being forecast at CYPR? (5 marks) Wind__________________________________________________________________ Ceiling_________________________________________________________________ Visibility_______________________________________________________________ Weather and/or obstruction to vision__________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ (e) At what time are winds forecast to begin to decrease? Explain your answer. (2 marks) 6.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  FDCN03 CWAO 051530 FCST BASED ON 051200 DATA VALID 061200 FOR USE 06-17 3000  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  6000  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  9000  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  12000  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  18000 YVR 1838  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2048+03  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2146-03  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2251-08  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2264-19 YYF 9900  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1912-01  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2231-03  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2248-07  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2766-18 YXC  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2307+00  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2428-02  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2537-07  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2544-17 YZP2026  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2127-05  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2128-12  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2131-19  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2041-31 YZT 2215  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2222-03  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2231-08  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2139-14  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2060-25 YPU  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2115-02  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2139-06  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2149-12  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2064-23 YXS  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1834-04  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2240-05  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2246-10  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2056-22 YYD  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1721-06  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2133-09  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2040-15  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1953-27 (a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What is the valid period for the forecast winds above? (b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the digital winds above, wind direction is forecast in degrees____________and wind speed in_____________. (2 marks) (c)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What is the forecast wind (direction and speed) and temperature at 12,000 feet over Puntzi Mountian (YPU)? (2 marks) (d)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What is the forecast wind direction and speed at 9,000 feet over Kelowna? (2 marks) (e)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Estimate the wind direction and speed and temperature over Penticton (YYF) at 15,000 feet. (3 marks) 7.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Decode completely the following digital wind for 34,000 feet – 619935. (4 marks) 8.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  You are flying at 10,000 feet towards an airport with elevation of 2,127 feet. You ask the FSS operator for the current digit winds at 3, 6 and 9 thousand feet and are told that no wind is available for 3,000 feet. Why is no wind available? 9.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On a ‘Clouds and Weather’ panel of a graphic area forecast cloud layers will be described as to: (a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  amount and the base of the cloud (b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  amount and the top of the cloud (c)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  amount and the bases and top of the cloud (d)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  none of the above 10.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For an equivalent amount of cooling, more energy is released during condensation at ____________________temperatures. (a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  colder (b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  warmer (c)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  they will be the same (d)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  energy will be absorbed, not released 11.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The three principle properties of the atmosphere are: (a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  rain, snow, hail (b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  heat, cold, moisture (c)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  expansion, compression, mobility (d)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  pressure, temperature, wind 12.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Atmospheric processes which effect the weather are, for the most part, restricted to the: (a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  thermosphere (b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  mesosphere (c)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  stratosphere (d)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  troposphere 13.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The temperature in the lowest part of the stratosphere_______________with altitude. (a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  increases (b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  nearly constant (c)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  decreases slowly (d)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  decreases rapidly 14.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Why when using a graphic area forecast is it important to be aware of the elevation of the local topography?

The Wife Of Martin Guerre Essay -- essays research papers

Arnaud du Tilh, a rogue and an impostor, deserved punishment for his crimes, and that is what he received. Arnaud, a man once thought by people to be unmistakably Martin Guerre, was sentenced to death. Perhaps in this day an age, a punishment such as this would be excessively severe, however in Arnaud's time it was considered just. A question can be asked whether Martin Guerre deserves such a punishment as well, because of his actions. Martin Guerre never broke any laws like that of Arnaud du Tilh, however in a moral sense, Martin's actions were down at Arnaud's level, perhaps even lower.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Martin Guerre was the spitting image of his father. Before he left the farm, everyone that knew him was confident in him taking over his father's position as head and prote...

Diplomatic History Essay

Operation Rolling Thunder refers to an intense onslaught carried out by the United States against the North Vietnamese in the period between 1965-1968. The rationale behind this attack was not clear, as even its chief architects believe it was not clear-cut. No one had put into consideration the political costs and loss of lives. President Johnson hoped that with this onslaught, he would boost the dying morale of the southern Vietnamese by impressing upon them the Americans might. This however achieved the opposite by diminishing his political standing at home and did not help to bring the North Vietnamese to the negotiating table as was hoped. The Six-Day War is a war that pitted Israel on one side against Jordan, Egypt and Syria. These countries had vowed not to recognize the legitimacy of Israel and wanted it destroyed, however Israel victory dealt these countries a huge blow and they retreated after it became apparent that Israel would reach their capital. This war brought a near clash between two superpowers then, the United States and the Soviet Union, with the U. S behind Israel and USSR behind the Arab states. This war had put the U. S in a tight spot as it did not want to sour its relations with the Arabs or its diplomatic ties with Israel. This is seen as the reason why the U. S exercised restrain and only aided Israel with weapons but no direct intervention. The Iran Contra Scandal occurred in 1987 and refers to a deal entered into by president Reagan’s administration and Iran. The United States was to supply Iran with weapons so that it would facilitate and press for the release of American hostages held by the Hezbollah. This scandal tarnished the U. S stand abroad of not negotiating with terrorists and also led to the plummeting of Reagan’s popularity. It would also see the conviction of some high-ranking officials. Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev of Russia was the last president of the United Soviet Socialist Republic before it collapsed in 1991. He is hailed for having initiated the move that led to the end of cold war. He introduced reforms in Russia and tightened the relations with President Ronald Regan, ending the cold war and consequently the breaking up the USSR. It is during this tenure that the relations between the USSR and the U. S were improved. Core to his reforms was re-introduction of ties with the west. Kosovo, Yugoslavia, had been rocked by fighting between Albania guerillas and Serb forces. The United States and NATO forces stepped in to help quell the fighting resulting to what came to be known as Operation Allied Forces that initiated an onslaught against Serbia till Slobodan Milosevic withdrew from Kosovo. The United States over the years was actively involved in the process meant to restore peace although the congress did not expressly authorize the air strikes nor block them. To date The UN Resolution 1244 has failed to establish the status of Kosovo. The United States has been supporting what is referred to as the Ahtisaari plan that seeks to have Kosovo supervised. Russia is opposing the plan and vows to use the Veto power should the situation demand. The Dayton Accords refer to the peace agreements that saw the end of the Bosnia war in 1995. This agreement was the culmination of a series of negotiations that had before been unfruitful. The United States and Russia had been mounting pressure for the warring sides to accept negotiations. These negotiations held in Ohio brought together a cross section of leaders from the region. This was done under the tutelage of the U. S secretary of state Warren Christopher together with the representatives of European Union. The Official peace pact was to be signed in France by Clinton, John Major, and Jacques Chirac amongst others. This pact was to see the international community lead the implementation of the treaty backed by the NATO forces. Ngo Dinh Diem was born in 1901. He went to the United States due to political turmoil at home. In the US he would meet the then influential leaders where he reiterated his opposition to colonialism and communism in his bid to gain their approval. He succeeded and the United States installed him as the president hoping he would become a U. S puppet. This however did not happen and he was oppressive of the Southern Vietnamese. He rigged the elections that were to follow and imprisoned opposition leaders and critics. The United States was torn between a rock and a hard place, it risked being stuck with an unpopular leader who was unable to unite Vietnam and in turn lose the country to the communists. This is what led CIA to sanction a plot to have Diem assassinated by failing to offer the protection they were giving him before. Consequently he was assassinated in 1963 and his place taken by Nguyen Van Thieu. The relationship between the United States and PLO can only be described as that of perpetual hostility towards each other. To the United States, PLO represented a major threat to its interests and ally in Middle East. PLO also saw the U. S as a threat and that is why it aligned itself with the USSR and took a strong anti-American stance. In spite of this standoff, the United States initiated a dialogue between the two in 1988. PLO accepted the status of Israel and agreed to denounce terrorism hence triggering the dialogue. All along there had been a long stand-off between the two as PLO had refused to acknowledge the existence of Israel while in turn the U. S had not recognized PLO as the voice of the Palestine people. By accepting to negotiate with the PLO, PLO saw this as a form of recognition and it felt that it had won against the U. S’ hard stance. The U. S stand against PLO and the initiation of the talks has always been a defining moment in Middle East because it gave an international recognition, in line with the UN resolutions, a nation it considered a terrorist movement. The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) fronted by President Reagan, aimed at developing a system that would use ground and space systems to defend the United States in case of a nuclear ballistic missiles attack. This system did not succeed as it was intended to, but it is hailed as being the basis under which the current anti-ballistic missiles were made. All these efforts and research was put under the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization that was brought together in 1984 to oversee all matters relating to missile defense. The Taliban are a Sunni Islamic movement that was at the helm of leadership in Afghanistan for a period of five years up to 2001 when they were removed from power by a coalition of forces led by the united states. It has a rather interesting history as in its early days it was supported by the United States to fight off the communists who wanted to take over Afghanistan. After taking over power in 1998, the Taliban hard stance, Sharia law, suppression and persecutions did not endear it to many countries including the United States which saw it as harboring terrorists such as the Al Qaeda. It was ousted from power by a coalition of forces and the Northern alliance in what came to be known as war on terror. Part 2 President Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger remain the two of the most important figures in the United States as far as foreign policy is concerned. No doubt that Nixon’s administration was riddled with a scandal that would lead to his resignation. Critics agree however that his tenure was not without some important accomplishments. Appropriately President Nixon came into power when the cold war had intensified and the world was at the brink of war with the United States and the Soviet Union rocked into a perpetual duel that was threatening a peaceful co-existence between the West and East. President Nixon was elected on a platform of ending American forces engagement in Vietnam. This, he achieved although his withdrawal was rather slow much to the consternation of many Americans. It had seemed that Nixon rather believed that he could correct the mess he had inherited in Vietnam, snatch victory and withdraw the troops honorably. This however did not happen and the events that followed remain his lowest moments in leadership. Nixon and Kissinger were advocating a foreign policy that would see the United States pursue an effort to limit the expansion of the Soviet bloc influence, support militarily and economically any governments that would aid their course whether or not such governments were repressive or had poor ratings as far as civil rights are concerned. This would explain why this tenure was characterized by overthrowal from power popularly elected regimes and supplanting them with dictatorial leaderships. Iran and Chile serves as good attestation to this. The key objective of Nixon administration was to keep communism in check at whatever cost even if it meant trampling on the civil rights of the citizens and dropping hundreds of bombs. The Vietnam War still remains the biggest to both Kissinger and Nixon’s profiles. Faced with growing opposition and plummeting opinion ratings, Nixon remained aloof and initiated attacks in Vietnam while hoodwinking the American public by withdrawing the forces bits by bits. To his administration ‘place with honor’ remained the key strategy. It is Detente that remains the hallmark of his achievements, on top of his ability to limit and finally withdraw American forces from Vietnam. In Detente he promised to ease relations with the former archrivals of America. It was a new type of diplomacy that would see a permanent relaxation of relations between the superpowers, even the nations that were perceived as enemies before. This, he accomplished by improving the relations between the United States and China. Kissinger was Nixon’s key operative. He was highly secretive to the extent that his meeting with Chinese officials was unknown to the ambassador of the U. S to China, George Bush snr. However he was able to improve the sour relation that existed. This was in the Nixon’s bid to woo China after it had fallen out with the Soviet bloc and consequently tilt the balance to his advantage. Aided by the Kissinger, Nixon introduced what was referred to as the Nixon Doctrine; this is what formed the basis of his foreign policy. The United States, to maintain its influence would provide military support to its allies but not in any way provide troops. In wooing China, Nixon and Kissinger who were realists, had reconciled that China was far much important to be ignored in the international scene being the most populous. This also gave impetus to his re-election bid especially as the Ping Pong diplomacy had drawn a perception that he identified with the common voter. Through the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty of 1972 (SALT), the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to curtail further production of high range ballistic missiles as well as their defense systems. This ‘strategic parity’, as many scholars refer to it, was to be a substitute to the arms race. The Soviet bloc agreed to this immediately probably fearing the improved relations between China and the United States. To wrap up Nixon achievements in foreign policy was his visit to China, where he became the first president to do so; this had privately been arranged by Kissinger. He also went to Moscow where he and Brezhner signed the SALT and trade agreements. The shuttle diplomacy also said off relatively where Henry Kissinger was able to broker a peace deal with Israel an Arab in the Yom Kippur war. In this war the U. S had been torn between a rock and a hard place. It sought to protect Israel and did not want to scuttle its friendship with the Arab states. Although Nixon had the above achievements, his mistakes or miscalculations further outweighed the accomplishments. Many people in U. S and internationally remember him for his misdeeds more that these achievements. His administration single handedly put the image of the United States as a champion of civil rights and peace into disrepute. To start with was his handling of the Vietnam War. He was unable to come to terms with the fact that the United States could lose the war and was willing to put the lives of American soldiers on the line to drive this point home, but to no avail. Despite cutting his stature in the international limelight as a statesman by establishing ties with china, the question of Vietnam is still very troublesome to both Nixon and Kissinger. Nixon had vowed to win peace. Vietnamization or the concerted attack in Laos and Cambodia put a permanent dent on his reputation. He hoped that these would paint an image of a ‘madman’ and compel Hanoi to reach a favorable agreement. These attacks prompted Americans to take to the streets in protest especially as it became apparent that he had dropped all pretext of diplomacy. Although Kissinger was able to bring the warring parties into negotiations, the terms were not any different from the ones that north Vietnam had brought to the table in 1969, an indication that all those years of attack and loss of lives had not borne fruits especially to the United States. It is the Watergate scandal however that broke the camels back and forced Nixon out of office. The Watergate scandal remains the greatest evidence of the atrocities committed by the United States where both Kissinger and Nixon undermined democracy in the third world and brought bloodshed. It is these atrocities that led to calls by civil and human rights activists to have Kissinger investigated for crimes against humanity. After the scandal, the United States was not credible in its self-proclaimed international role. Oil crises would loom in the U. S as the Middle East placed embargoes. There was also a political re-alignment with disillusionment characterizing the Republican Party. Kissinger however was left unscathed and went on to serve as the secretary of state in Ford and Carters administration. Nixon’s presidency is a tenure that many Americans would wish to put behind.

ATTACKS ON THE INSANITY DEFENSE Essays - Criminal Defenses

ATTACKS ON THE INSANITY DEFENSE Essays - Criminal Defenses ATTACKS ON THE INSANITY DEFENSE The insanity defense refers to that branch of the concept of insanity which defines the extent to which men accused of crimes may be relieved of criminal responsibility by virtue of mental disease. The terms of such a defense are to be found in the instructions presented by the trial judge to the jury at the close of a case. These instructions can be drawn from any of several rules used in the determination of mental illness. The final determination of mental illness rests solely on the jury who uses information drawn from the testimony of "expert" witnesses, usually professionals in the field of psychology. The net result of such a determination places an individual accordingly, be it placement in a mental facility, incarceration, or outright release. Due to these aforementioned factors, there are several problems raised by the existence of the insanity defense. Problems such as the actual possibility of determining mental illness, justifiable placement of judged "mentally ill" offe nders, and the overall usefulness of such a defense. In all, I believe that these problems, as well as others which will be mentioned later, lead us to the conclusion that the insanity defense is useless and should be abolished entirely. Insanity is a legal, not a medical definition. Therefore, mental illness and insanity are not synonymous: only some mental illness constitutes insanity. Insanity, however, includes not only mental illness but also mental deficiencies. Due to this, there are problems in exactly how to apply a medical theory to a legal matter (Herman, 1983;128). The legal concepts of mental illness and insanity raise questions in a conflict between what are termed legalistic criminology and scientific criminology: mens rea, punishment v. treatment, responsibility, and prisons v. hospitals. This debate seesaws to and fro amidst a grey area between law and science. The major difficulty with a theory such as mental illness is that it is just that, a theory. To scientists theories are a way of life, but applied to the concept of law theories become somewhat dangerous. By applying a loose theory such as mental illness to law we are in essence throwing the proverbial "monkey wrench" into the wheels of justic e. TESTING FOR INSANITY At the center of the legal use of insanity lies the mens rea. Every crime involves a physical act, or actus reus, and a mental act, or mens rea, the non-physical cause of behavior. The mens rea is the mental element required for a crime, and if absent excuses the defendant from criminal responsibility and punishment (Jeffery, 1985;49). The difficulty here lies in analyzing the mens rea. In order to do this lawyers apply one of several rules used by psychologists. These rules range from the Irresistible Impulse Test to the M'Naghten Rule. Each of these rules approach mental illness/capacity in a different way and in my opinion each falls short of actual proof. I will discuss each in detail. The M'Naghten Rule The M'Naghten Rule, also known as the right-wrong test, arose in 1843 during the trial of Daniel M'Naghten who argued that he was not criminally responsible for his actions because he suffered from delusions at the time of the killing. The M'Naghten Rule reads: A defendant may be excused from criminal responsibility if at the time of the commission of the act the party accused was laboring under such a defect of reason, from a disease of the mind, as not to know the nature and the quality of the act he was doing, or if he did know it, that he did not know that he was doing what was wrong. Thus, according to the rule, a person is basically insane if he or she is unable to distinguish between right and wrong as a result of some mental disability. Criticism of the M'Naghten Rule has come from both legal and medical professions. Many criticize that the test is unsound in its view of human psychology. Psychiatry, it is argued, views the human personality as an integrated entity, not divisible into separate compartments of reason, emotion, or volition (Herman, 1983;138). Additionally, the test is criticized for defining responsibility solely in terms of cognition. While cognitive symptoms may reveal disorder, they alone are not

Police Professionalism

Police Professionalism Introduction Professionalism is the aim, conduct or qualities that characterize a vocation that requires advanced training in some liberal art or science. It is characterized by service to others, assessment of the client’s needs, practice as well as ethical conduct. Many confuse the term especially when it comes to law enforcement with a soft image, cool, aloof officer with no feeling, crisp uniform, and using high tech as an expert at fighting crime. Responsibility on the other hand is defined as assuming accountability for an action, task or a decision.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Police Professionalism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Professionalism and ethics Professionalism in the police force has several positive impacts that include good service to the public, better pay for the constables, ethical conduct, strong community support as well as respect and a stronger role in a Criminal Justice Syste m. In ethics, the aspect that matters is doing things in the rightful way irrespective of the individual in question. Ethics refers to a system of moral principles and a branch of philosophy that defines what is good for individuals as well as the society (Glomseth, Gott Petter, 2011, p. 112). This brings about the question of whether police professionalism is based on education or ethics in the minds of many a people. In providing an answer to such a question, a study has been done that confirms that many of the officers in the law enforcement have minimum education for the job but very advanced as far as ethics is concerned. Their moral standards are incomparable. Carter in his book says that, â€Å"Our high tech world is dictating the recruitment of more highly educated officers. College-educated officers appear to be more analytical, hence they are more objective with the public† (1989, p. 76). In this regard, education plays a pivotal role in ensuring the delivery of qu ality service. With the current state of advancement in technology, officers who are not well educated will be rendered obsolete. Some police officers around the globe have embraced social networks in curbing crimes. Even those without web-enabled phones have designed a way of receiving tweets as text messages. Following the above description, professionalism entails the provision of good services within a given jurisdiction. Ethics on the other hand has been broken into several categories, which include Integrity, Honesty, Values, Morals, Principles, Standards and Courage. According to Lt. Andrew Barolle, â€Å"integrity is the core of ethics that binds the other elements together† (2005, p. 65). He argues that continual reinforcement and education are essential in enhancing the officers’ integrity. He also acknowledged honesty as one of the pillars in enhancing effective enhancement of the law. Values are a system of beliefs meaningful to us and that determine what i s vital to us hence controlling our manner of conduct.Advertising Looking for essay on criminology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The other ethical category is moral which determines what is right from what is wrong. Additionally, principles are essential in the portraying the core values within the police force. When one is exposed to a difficult situation and it happens that he does the right thing despite personal or professional consequences, he is said to be courageous. Courage makes one face a challenge with confidence and self-possession. The courage is either physical or moral. Physical courage includes facing armed suspects and handling them as required while moral courage is evident when one refuses free meals, refuses to indulge in gender based humor as well as refusing gratuities among others. Officers ought to be thorough equipped and trained on how to handle difficult situations before it happens. Pau l Strong says that, â€Å"this type of training increases and builds integrity in the officers and promotes the ethical standards they are expected to uphold† (2005, p. 70). According to Travis, there are certain factors that are characteristic of police professionalism (1997, p.15). These factors include justice, wisdom or rather prudence, courage as well as ones’ sense of responsibility. When one is arrested, the decisions governing law enforcement, prosecution and passing of a judgment are made using the guide of what is right and just for the people or person in question. Policing Policing is a way of curbing crimes in a more community-based manner. According to Jones and Newburn, there are several aspects that are involved in policing (1998, p.58). They include the maintenance of the rule of the law, peacekeeping and investigation of crimes among others. The police force plays a major role in tackling and eliminating crimes in the society, streets and the nation a t large for their role according to Newburn is â€Å"Concentration on maintenance of law and order as well as prevention and detection of offences† (Newburn, 2008, p. 15). Many other professionals are involved in the same task though the police force is the major organ that deals with the maintenance of law and order in many nations. Others include community police who work hand in hand with the police to ensure that order is maintained in the community level. They act as brokers between the police and the community for a better relationship (James, 2011, p. 135). McLaughlin and Muncie argue that â€Å"Community policing holds out the promise of reduced levels of crime and disorder, improved quality of life for the community, a supportive environment for police operations and greater job satisfaction for police officers† (2006, p. 167). They also deal with responding to stressing calls from distressed community members as well as handling anti-social behaviors in the c ommunity.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Police Professionalism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Others that handle the same tasks as the police include the security guards who not only guard property but also people from hazards. They ensure that people do not get involved in criminal activities. This ensures that the police have easier tasks in maintaining law and order in the society. It gives them sufficient time to enhance their skills through training sessions (Broome, 2011, p. 140). This kind of policing is said to evolve, develop, take root and grow in a continuous manner unlike many people’s perception that it starts in a new fiscal year. The process emphasizes on citizen participation and interaction in solving community problems. The police are involved in every bit of crime prevention including the fear of crime that negatively affects the public’s perception of security matters in a commu nity setting. In order to ensure that the much anticipated policing is achieved, the relationship between the police and the community needs to be streamlined. Training the community on their role in maintaining law and order in the society is essential in enhancing the co-operation of the two parties. Trust between the police and the community will ensure that the people have a say on how their streets are policed thus rendering the constables accountable locally. The locals ought to know that the police are actually there for them and have confidence that there is ethics and integrity in the criminal justice system. Policing would be hard and impossible if it was working in isolation. It should be delivered in partnership with the public but with key agencies at the local level and across the criminal justice system. Challenges that the police encounter The police are faced with multiple challenges in their line of career that range from being rejected by the people in the communi ty they work from to having to stay calm when faced with a hard situation that can cost them their lives. The police are known to be crime-fighters and doing dangerous jobs that require them to outsmart the challenge. They are supposed to outdo their enemies and the enemies of the community as a whole irrespective of their political, cultural and social backgrounds. In as much as they maintain law and order, the police have other responsibilities that range from social responsibilities to political responsibilities. The police are responsible for giving first aids to the needy as well as finding lost children. This does not in most cases call for the use of firearms. On the contrary, it needs emotional care and concern. In curbing crimes in the community, the police carry out criminal investigations as well as patrols (Chakerian, 1974, p. 145). They also care for the needy, resolve conflicts, protect constitutional guarantees, to reduce the opportunities for the commission of some c rimes, to promote and to preserve civil order.Advertising Looking for essay on criminology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The police should never mix personal gratifications with the performance of their duties. This is because the short-term goals of personal promotions or incentives and/or an agency to get their budget approved can ruin the good work and the most important task of taking care of the entire nation. This can jeopardize the sacred love, peace, unity and harmony of the entire nation. It would obscure the long-term goal of crime eradication, justice for all and protection of the individual’s right. The sole beneficiary of all these should be the public. In correction of the perpetrators of the rights of the others, the police make arrests and forward them to the courts of law without infringing their rights at any one given time during the arrest or even thereafter (Liqun, 2011, p. 56). The lawbreakers’ right to justice is paramount and the police, while contacting any investigations, are supposed to put this into consideration. They are not supposed to cook evidence or forc e others to give false evidence. They are not supposed to use force the convict to bow down to the crack of the whip. Ethical concerns in sentencing include predictions and discrimination. They predict whom to issue greater punishment to the other. The purpose of prediction is to discriminate those offenders who deserve more punishment. They discriminate against race, sex, age and even socioeconomic status. Punishment based on predictions is derived from an earlier criminal record, which mostly is based on race and sex. â€Å"There is growing evidence that discrimination in sentencing can be controlled through guidelines or other decision-making aids† (Wooldredge, 2009, p. 79). The problem of sentencing in prediction could be less serious in practice than in perception, but the perception persists widely. The ethics of sentencing can be stated as a question of justice in which case the need to know what just punishment is and when to impose punishment justly. Von Hirsch says that, â€Å"While people will disagree about what justice requires our assumption of primacy of justice is vital because it alters the terms of the debate. One cannot, on this assumption, defend any scheme for dealing with convicted criminals solely by pointing to its usefulness in controlling crime, one is compelled to inquire whether that scheme is a just one and why† (1976, p. 5). Crime control policy Crime control policy calls for more police in the streets or imposing longer sentences. Research shows that the more the policies there are in place to control crime the more the problems that can be foreseen by the law. The crime control policy needs to be amended to enhance discipline among the offenders. Research has shown that more than 70% of the inmates in the nation’s prisons are not there for the first time (Reiman, 1997, p.32). Conclusion In conclusion, the police play a pivotal role in the maintenance of law and order in any nation. Their task is crucial. A s mall portion of abuse of office can cost lives and this is the reason as to why every nation has a code of ethics that govern the conduct of individual police officers. References Borrello, A. (2005). Defining the Building Blocks of Ethics. Law and Order, 1, 65-68. Brooke, R. (2011). An Empathetic Psychological Perspective of Police Deadly Force Training. Journal of phenomenological Psychology, 42(2), 137-156. Carter, D. (1989). The State of Police Education for the 21st Century. Washington D.C.: Police Executive Research. Chakerian, R. (1974). Police Professionalism and Citizen Evaluations: A preliminary Look. Public Administration Review, 34(2), 141-148. Glomseth, R., Gott, S. Petter, H. (2011). Professional Values in Knowledge Orgainizations: The Case of Police Districts. International Journal of Police Science and Management, 13(1), 100-125. Hirsch, A. (1976). Doing Justice: the choice of punishments. NY: Northeastern University Publishers. James, G. (2011). Policing Public Pro tests and Corporate Social Responsibility.  International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 39(2), 132-140. Jones, T., Newburn, T. (1998). Private Security and Public Policing. NY: Clarendon Press. Liqun, C. (2011). Visible Minorities and Confidence in the Police. Canadian Journal of  Criminology and Criminal Justice, 53(1), 56-90. McLaughlin, E., Muncie, J. (2006). The Sage Dictionary of Criminology. California: Sage Publications, Thousand Oak. Newburn, T. (2008). Handbook of Policing. NY: Williams. Reiman, H. (1997). Critical Moral Liberalism: Theory and Practice. London: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. Wooldredge, C. (2009). Hand up! In the World of Crime or 12 Years a Detective. Illinois: University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign Library.